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a/bige/.test0.tex.swp and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/.DS_Store b/cer/.DS_Store index e93a7bb..dd0879a 100644 Binary files a/cer/.DS_Store and b/cer/.DS_Store differ diff --git a/cer/.cer.tex.swp b/cer/.cer.tex.swp deleted file mode 100644 index a76230c..0000000 Binary files a/cer/.cer.tex.swp and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/bonds/bonds.log b/cer/bonds/bonds.log deleted file mode 100644 index e69de29..0000000 diff --git a/cer/bonds/bonds.pdf b/cer/bonds/bonds.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index 2becad7..0000000 Binary files a/cer/bonds/bonds.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/bonds/bonds.tex b/cer/bonds/bonds.tex deleted file mode 100644 index 8fbeedf..0000000 --- a/cer/bonds/bonds.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,37 +0,0 @@ -\input ../cer.tex - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\question{Based on a substance's properties, how can you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent?} -\claim{If a substance is solid at room temperature, has a crystalline structure, dissolves easily in water, and conducts electricity well, then it likely contains ionic bonds. Otherwise, it likely contains covalent bonds.} - -\def\data{ - \datastyle{0.6in} - \halign{ \vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - \head Property & \head Oil & \head Corn\-starch & \head Sodium Chloride & \head Sodium Bicarbonate \cr - \noalign{\hrule} - \head State of Matter & Liquid & Solid & Solid & Solid \cr \noalign{\line} - \head Appear\-ance and Texture & Pale Yellow and Viscous, Amorphous & Powdery and White & Granular and White & Powdery and White \cr \noalign{\line} - \head Crystal\-line Structure (Yes/No) & No (not solid) & No (non-crystalline solid) & Yes & Yes \cr \noalign{\line} - \head Solubility in Water & None & None & All & Most \cr \noalign{\line} - \head Conduct\-ivity when in Water (Yes/No) & No & No & Yes & Yes \cr \noalign{\line} - \head Ionic or Covalent Bonds & Covalent & Covalent & Ionic & Ionic \cr \noalign{\line} - } -} -\evidence{\parsub \noindent\data\parsub\smallskip - I know this because all examined substances follow most trends as expected. Starting with the covalent substances, oil is liquid at room temperature, leading us to think it is covalent in line with the claim; cornstarch is solid, contradicting the trend, showing that these trends for ionic and covalent bonds aren't hard and fast. The more ``strict'' properties such as solubility in water, crystalline structure, and conductivity while in solution are, respectively none, none, and none---exactly as one would expect for covalent substances.\parsub - The ionic substances, in turn, satisfy the predictions much more readily. They are both solid at room temperature and have a crystalline structure visible macroscopically as grains or powder. Also, they mostly or completely dissolve in water and allow it to conduct electricity in solution---precisely as predicted by the claim. -} - -\justification{ - The properties listed occur in these examples and in general because of core structural differences in ionic and covalent bonds. The most important of these differences is the strong polarisation of ionic compounds. Such a polarisation is generated from the cations losing their outer valence shell to the anions.\parsub - The strongly polar nature of ionic compounds manifests in high (compared to covalent compounds) boiling and melting points because of the resultant high intermolecular forces. Covalent bonds have low boiling and melting points because they have lower intermolecular forces. Even if a given covalent bond is polar, ionic bonds are generally stronger because they contain strongly charged ions instead of generally uncharged atoms of which one more strongly attracts electrons. This can also explain why ionic compounds dissolve in water more readily than a typical covalent compound (generally nonpolar or weakly polar). The strong polarity of these ionic compounds allows the water, a weakly polar compound and a polar solvent, to dissolve the solute and dissociate the ions.\parsub - These dissociated ions are precisely why a solution of an ionic compound and water is extremely conductive---the electrons flow through the ions sliding around inside the liquid to generate an electric current. The crystals that ionic compounds form occur for a loosely related reason: the ions can associate very readily into 3-dimensional crystals (the bonds are just the strong attraction between the ions, which works the same with 20 pairs or with 200). These crystals also have low potential energy, making them one of the most stable forms for ionic compounds to be in. -} - -\makeheader -\makedoc -\bye diff --git a/cer/cer.tex b/cer/cer.tex deleted file mode 100644 index 7a60ab1..0000000 --- a/cer/cer.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,96 +0,0 @@ -\font\tinyx=cmr8 at 6pt \def\tiny{\tinyx \baselineskip=6pt} -\font\headx=cmb8 at 9pt \def\head{\headx \baselineskip=9pt} -\font\bigx=cmb14 \def\big{\bigx \baselineskip=14pt} - -\hoffset -0.5in -\voffset -0.5in -\hsize 7.5in -\vsize 10in - -\catcode `\@11 -\def\@name{} -\def\@course{} -\def\@teacher{} -\def\name#1{\def\@name{#1}} -\def\course#1{\def\@course{#1}} -\def\teacher#1{\def\@teacher{#1}} -\def\makeheader{ -\noindent Your Name: \@name -\vskip 2ex plus 0pt -\noindent Course: \@course -\vskip 2ex plus 0pt -\noindent Teacher: \@teacher -\vskip 2ex plus 0pt -} - -\long\def\column#1#2{ %width %count %text= - \long\def\item##1{ - \noindent \vrule \vbox{ - \hrule \hsize#1 ##1 - \hrule - }\vrule\par \vskip -1.5pt - 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51 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) - 17 compressed objects within 1 object stream - 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) - 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) - diff --git a/cer/changes/changes.pdf b/cer/changes/changes.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index ed49934..0000000 Binary files a/cer/changes/changes.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/changes/changes.tex b/cer/changes/changes.tex deleted file mode 100644 index 5985427..0000000 --- a/cer/changes/changes.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,57 +0,0 @@ -\input cer.tex - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\def\data{ - \def\line{\hrule height 0.05pt} - \def\width{1.05in} - \def\style{\tiny \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000} - \def\text##1{\ \style \hbox to \width{\vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \hsize\width ##1}} } - \halign{ \vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \hfil & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - \head Material & \head Change(s) Observed & \head Type of Change (Physical or Chemical) \cr - \noalign{\hrule} - Calcium Carbonate & The substance was crushed into a fine powder (particle size decreased) & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} - Calcium Carbonate and Hydrochloric Acid & The two substances mixed and began to release gas & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Water & The substance was heated and began to release gas (water vapor) as it boiled & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} - Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate (CSP) & The substance was heated, causing it to release gas, - lose volume, and change color from blue to white & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Iron Filings and Sulfur & The two substances were stirred together, changing color to an olive. - Then, a magnet was placed above the pile, and iron filings were pulled onto it. & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} - Potassium Iodide and Lead Nitrate & The lead nitrate (liquid) was poured into potassium iodide (liquid), and - they changed color from both light blue to yellow. & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid & Magnesium was placed into hydrochloric acid, significantly increasing the temperature; - bubbles were released on the magnesium strip, and the magnesium disappeared & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Candle & The top of the candle's wick was lit, starting a flame which burned away the wick and - melted much of the candle wax, refrozen at the bottom of the candle & Physical and Chemical \cr - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - } -} - -\def\parsub{\par} -\def\quadspace{\ \ \ \ } \def\qquadspace{\quadspace\quadspace} -\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} - -\makeheader -\column{7.4in}{ - \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} How can you distinguish a physical change from a chemical change?}}% - \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} If a substance undergoes a chemical change, it will not retain its original properties because a new substance is formed.}} - \item{\row{3.6in}{2}{ - \item{ - {\bf Evidence:} \vskip2ex \data \vskip0.5ex \qquad Certain Chemical and Physical Changes \parsub - I know this because all observed chemical changes form\-ed substances with new properties. For example, the calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid combined to create a substance (the released gas) which was gaseous at room temperature. The CSP chemical change also demonstrates this because, when heated, it created a substance which was white and powdery (in contrast to its original form). \parsub - The physical changes prove the inverse: ``if a substance undergoes a physical change, it will retain most of its original properties.'' Heating water, for example, left water with the same properties as before (other than temperature). Stirring iron filing and sulfur, another physical change, left two substances with precisely the same properties as before -- clearly evidenced by the magnet pulling out the still magnetically attracted iron filings. \parsub - \vskip1ex - } - \item{ - {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:}\parsub - A chemical change is defined as ``a change in the identity and properties of matter.'' A physical change is defined as ``a change in one or more physical properties of a substance but not in the identity of the substance.'' Thus, it seems reasonable that a chemical change would result in the change of a substance's identity and consequently its properties (the essential elements of any form of identity). The numerous examples of chemical structure's significant effect on the properties of a substance also show that any minor or major change in structure (all chemical changes) or makeup can drastically modify a substance.\parsub - The properties which change only during chemical chan\-ges are chemical properties, and these can also be used to differentiate from physical changes which still change physical properties (such as temperature --- a physical property --- when water was heated, as compared to color --- a chemical property --- changing when CSP was heated). Also, because chemical changes can modify both chemical and physical changes, any given chemical change likely changes the majority of properties of a substance. - \vskip1ex - } - }} -} - -\bye diff --git a/cer/changes/changes0.log b/cer/changes/changes0.log deleted file mode 100644 index 504386a..0000000 --- a/cer/changes/changes0.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ -This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 11 JUN 2019 12:55 -entering extended mode - restricted \write18 enabled. - %&-line parsing enabled. -**changes0.tex -(./changes0.tex (./cer.tex) -Overfull \hbox (23.01698pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 44--45 -[]\tenrm 2 |[]| | - -\hbox(15.68887+0.0)x542.025, glue set - 1.0 -.\hbox(0.0+0.0)x20.0 -.\tenrm 2 -.\glue 3.33333 plus 1.66666 minus 1.11111 -.\glue 3.33333 plus 1.66666 minus 1.11111 -.\rule(*+*)x0.4 -.etc. - -[1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdftex/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) -Output written on changes0.pdf (1 page, 62121 bytes). -PDF statistics: - 51 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) - 17 compressed objects within 1 object stream - 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) - 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) - diff --git a/cer/changes/changes0.pdf b/cer/changes/changes0.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index cb01344..0000000 Binary files a/cer/changes/changes0.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/changes/changes0.tex b/cer/changes/changes0.tex deleted file mode 100644 index 6618aa9..0000000 --- a/cer/changes/changes0.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,63 +0,0 @@ -\input cer.tex - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\def\data{ - \def\line{\hrule height 0.05pt} - \def\width{1.05in} - \def\style{\tiny \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000} - \def\text##1{\ \style \hbox to \width{\vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \hsize\width ##1}} } - \halign{ \vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \hfil & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - \head Material & \head Change(s) Observed & \head Type of Change (Physical or Chemical) \cr - \noalign{\hrule} - Calcium Carbonate & The substance was crushed into a fine powder (particle size decreased) & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} - Calcium Carbonate and Hydrochloric Acid & The two substances mixed and began to release gas & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Water & The substance was heated and began to release gas (water vapor) as it boiled & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} - Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate (CSP) & The substance was heated, causing it to release gas, - lose volume, and change color from blue to white & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Iron Filings and Sulfur & The two substances were stirred together, changing color to an olive. - Then, a magnet was placed above the pile, and iron filings were pulled onto it. & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} - Potassium Iodide and Lead Nitrate & The lead nitrate (liquid) was poured into potassium iodide (liquid), and - they changed color from both light blue to yellow. & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid & Magnesium was placed into hydrochloric acid, significantly increasing the temperature; - bubbles were released on the magnesium strip, and the magnesium disappeared & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} - Candle & The top of the candle's wick was lit, starting a flame which burned away the wick and - melted much of the candle wax, refrozen at the bottom of the candle & Physical and Chemical \cr - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - } -} - -\def\parsub{\par} -\def\quadspace{\ \ \ \ } \def\qquadspace{\quadspace\quadspace} -\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} - -\question{question placeholder} -\claim{claim placeholder} -\evidence{some cool ass evidence} -\justification{this makes sense because} - -\makeheader -\makedoc -\column{7.4in}{2}{ - \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} How can you distinguish a physical change from a chemical change?}}% - \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} If a substance undergoes a chemical change, it will not retain its original properties because a new substance is formed.}} - \item{\row{3.6in}{2}{ - \item{ - {\bf Evidence:} \vskip2ex \data \vskip0.5ex \qquad Certain Chemical and Physical Changes \parsub - I know this because all observed chemical changes form\-ed substances with new properties. For example, the calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid combined to create a substance (the released gas) which was gaseous at room temperature. The CSP chemical change also demonstrates this because, when heated, it created a substance which was white and powdery (in contrast to its original form). \parsub - The physical changes prove the inverse: ``if a substance undergoes a physical change, it will retain most of its original properties.'' Heating water, for example, left water with the same properties as before (other than temperature). Stirring iron filing and sulfur, another physical change, left two substances with precisely the same properties as before -- clearly evidenced by the magnet pulling out the still magnetically attracted iron filings. \parsub - \vskip1ex - } - \item{ - {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:}\parsub - A chemical change is defined as ``a change in the identity and properties of matter.'' A physical change is defined as ``a change in one or more physical properties of a substance but not in the identity of the substance.'' Thus, it seems reasonable that a chemical change would result in the change of a substance's identity and consequently its properties (the essential elements of any form of identity). The numerous examples of chemical structure's significant effect on the properties of a substance also show that any minor or major change in structure (all chemical changes) or makeup can drastically modify a substance.\parsub - The properties which change only during chemical chan\-ges are chemical properties, and these can also be used to differentiate from physical changes which still change physical properties (such as temperature --- a physical property --- when water was heated, as compared to color --- a chemical property --- changing when CSP was heated). Also, because chemical changes can modify both chemical and physical changes, any given chemical change likely changes the majority of properties of a substance. - \vskip1ex - } - }} -} - -\bye diff --git a/cer/flame/flame.log b/cer/flame/flame.log deleted file mode 100644 index e7c955d..0000000 --- a/cer/flame/flame.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,30 +0,0 @@ -This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 12 JUN 2019 19:56 -entering extended mode - restricted \write18 enabled. - %&-line parsing enabled. -**flame.tex -(./flame.tex (../cer.tex) -! Missing } inserted. - - } - - & - { \head Ionic Compound in Solution & - Observed Flame Color \cr \no... - -\text ...skip 1ex \noindent \hsize \@tablewidth #1 - \smallskip }} -\makedata ...\@data \noalign {\hrule height 1pt} } - - ...\parsub \parsub \noindent \makedata - \parsub \smallskip \@evide... -... -l.36 \makedoc - -? x -No pages of output. -PDF statistics: - 0 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) - 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) - 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) - diff --git a/cer/flame/flame.pdf b/cer/flame/flame.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index 3a41c0a..0000000 Binary files a/cer/flame/flame.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/flame/flame.tex b/cer/flame/flame.tex deleted file mode 100644 index 80a8f45..0000000 --- a/cer/flame/flame.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,35 +0,0 @@ -\input ../cer.tex - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\question{Based on a substance's properties, how can you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent?} -\claim{If a substance is solid at room temperature, has a crystalline structure, dissolves easily in water, and conducts electricity well, then it likely contains ionic bonds. Otherwise, it likely contains covalent bonds.} - -\data{2}{1.65in}{ - \head Ionic Compound in Solution & Observed Flame Color \cr - \noalign{\hrule} - $HCl$ Solution (baseline) \ampsub blue \endlinex - 0.5M calcium chloride ($CaCl_2$) \ampsub orange-red \endlinex - 0.5M sodium chloride ($NaCl$) \ampsub orange-yellow \endlinex - 0.5M barium chloride ($BaCl_2$) \ampsub pale green \endlinex - 0.5M lithium chloride ($LiCl$) \ampsub red \endlinex - 0.5M copper(II) chloride ($CuCl_2$) \ampsub blue-green \endlinex - 0.5M cesium chloride ($CsCl$) \ampsub blue-violet \endlinex - Unknown Solution \#1 \ampsub red \endlinex - Unknown Solution \#2 \ampsub blue-violet \endlinex -} -\evidence{%\parsub \noindent\data\parsub\smallskip -\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad Lab Results\parsub -Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#1: Lithium \parsub -Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#2: Cesium \parsub -} - -\justification{ -This makes sense -} - -\makeheader -\makedoc -\bye diff --git a/cer/flame/flame0.log b/cer/flame/flame0.log deleted file mode 100644 index c8dbb92..0000000 --- a/cer/flame/flame0.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,20 +0,0 @@ -This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 19 JUN 2019 11:56 -entering extended mode - restricted \write18 enabled. - %&-line parsing enabled. -**flame0.tex -(./flame0.tex (../cer.tex) [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdfte -x/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) -Output written on flame0.pdf (1 page, 74728 bytes). -PDF statistics: - 54 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) - 23 compressed objects within 1 object stream - 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) - 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) - diff --git a/cer/flame/flame0.pdf b/cer/flame/flame0.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index 1e9fbd9..0000000 Binary files a/cer/flame/flame0.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/flame/flame0.tex b/cer/flame/flame0.tex deleted file mode 100644 index b117c71..0000000 --- a/cer/flame/flame0.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,36 +0,0 @@ -\input ../cer.tex - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\question{How can you use flame color to identify the metal ion in an unknown compound?} -\claim{If an unknown metal ion's flame color matches that of a known metal ion, then the metal ion likely is the same because metal ions produce characteristic colors when burned.} - -\data{\vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr}{1.65in}{ - \head Ionic Compound in Solution & \head Observed Flame Color \cr \noalign{\hrule} - $HCl$ Solution (baseline) & blue \endlinex - 0.5M calcium chloride ($CaCl_2$) & orange-red \endlinex - 0.5M sodium chloride ($NaCl$) & orange-yellow \endlinex - 0.5M barium chloride ($BaCl_2$) & pale green \endlinex - 0.5M lithium chloride ($LiCl$) & red \endlinex - 0.5M copper(II) chloride ($CuCl_2$) & blue-green \endlinex - 0.5M cesium chloride ($CsCl$) & blue-violet \endlinex - Unknown Solution \#1 & red \endlinex - Unknown Solution \#2 & blue-violet \endlinex -} - -\evidence{ -\centerline{Lab Results} -\centerline{Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#1: Lithium} -\centerline{Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#2: Cesium} -I know that the claim is true because all studied metal-chloride salts have different colors. The $LiCl$ salt, for example, burns a characteristic red which is backed up by an identical chemical solution burning the same color. All other examples on the above list have unique colors, and all samples of the same ions produce the same colors (as can be logically expected). The other example of the last property allowing identification of a given metal ion is $CsCl$, the second unknown solution which is blue-violet in both cases. This also gives a good clue as to the investigative question: one can determine the given metal ion of an unknown substance by cross-checking its flame test with the flame test of known substances. -} - -\justification{ -The ability to identify which metal ion is in a given unknown substance makes sense because when heating occurs from the Bunsen Burner, electrons within the metal ion become excited when they absorb the light. Then, they release photons in line with their atomic (emission) spectrum. The mixture of these photons produces a specific color---the characteristic color of the flame. Because atomic spectra are unique, any given set of compounds with different metal ions will always have different characteristic colors. These are also consistent between two atoms of the same element, further corroborating previously noted properties. As described in the evidence section, these properties of consistency and uniqueness mean that a cross-checking procedure would work to identify an unknown ionic compound's metal ion. -} - -\makeheader -\makedoc -\bye diff --git a/cer/flame/flame1.log b/cer/flame/flame1.log deleted file mode 100644 index b4e57c3..0000000 --- a/cer/flame/flame1.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16 +0,0 @@ -This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 13 JUN 2019 15:06 -entering extended mode - restricted \write18 enabled. - %&-line parsing enabled. -**flame1.tex -(./flame1.tex [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdftex/updmap/pdft -ex.map}] ) -Output written on flame1.pdf (1 page, 35084 bytes). -PDF statistics: - 16 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) - 10 compressed objects within 1 object stream - 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) - 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) - diff --git a/cer/flame/flame1.pdf b/cer/flame/flame1.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index 2301a60..0000000 Binary files a/cer/flame/flame1.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/flame/flame1.tex b/cer/flame/flame1.tex deleted file mode 100644 index f02dc6e..0000000 --- a/cer/flame/flame1.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,104 +0,0 @@ -\font\tinyx=cmr8 at 6pt \def\tiny{\tinyx \baselineskip=6pt} -\font\headx=cmb8 at 9pt \def\head{\headx \baselineskip=9pt} - -\hoffset -0.5in -\voffset -0.5in -\hsize 7.5in -\vsize 10in - -\catcode `\@11 -\def\@name{} -\def\@course{} -\def\@teacher{} -\def\name#1{\def\@name{#1}} -\def\course#1{\def\@course{#1}} -\def\teacher#1{\def\@teacher{#1}} -\def\makeheader{ -\noindent Your Name: \@name -\vskip 2ex plus 0pt -\noindent Course: \@course -\vskip 2ex plus 0pt -\noindent Teacher: \@teacher -\vskip 2ex plus 0pt -} - -\def\column#1#2{ %width %count %text= - \def\item##1{ - \noindent \vrule \vbox{ - \hrule \hsize#1 ##1 - \hrule - }\vrule\par \vskip -1.5pt - } - #2% -} - -\def\row#1#2#3{ %width %count %text - \count10=0 - \def\item##1{ - \hskip 0.4em - \vbox{ - \hsize #1 \smallskip - ##1 - } - \advance \count10 by 1 \ifnum\count10<#2 \vrule \fi - } - \hbox{\hskip -0.15em #3 \hskip -0.6em} -} - -\def\@question{} -\def\question#1{\def\@question{#1}} -\def\@claim{} \def\claim#1{\def\@claim{#1}} -\def\@evidence{} \def\evidence#1{\def\@evidence{#1}} -\def\@justification{} \def\justification#1{\def\@justification{#1}} - -\def\@data{} \def\@columns{} \dimendef\@tablewidth=1 -\def\data#1#2#3{ - \def\@columns{#1} \dimen1=#2\relax - \def\@data{#3} -} - -\def\makedata{ - \def\text##1{\ \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000 \hbox to \@tablewidth{\vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \hsize\@tablewidth ##1 \smallskip}} } - \gdef\endlinex{\cr \noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} - \halign{\vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \text{##} \vrule width 1pt & ## \cr - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - \@data - \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} - } -} - -\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} -\def\parsub{\par} -\def\makedoc{ - \column{7.4in}{ - \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} \@question}} - \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} \@claim}} - \item{\row{3.6015in}{2}{ - \item{ {\bf Evidence:} \parsub\parsub \noindent\makedata\parsub\smallskip \@evidence \smallskip} - \item{ {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:} \parsub \@justification \smallskip } - }} - } -} - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\question{Based on a substance's properties, how can you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent?} -\claim{If a substance is solid at room temperature, has a crystalline structure, dissolves easily in water, and conducts electricity well, then it likely contains ionic bonds. Otherwise, it likely contains covalent bonds.} - -\data{2}{1.65in}{testtest & xrioe &\endlinex this is & a line &\cr} -\evidence{%\parsub \noindent\data\parsub\smallskip -\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad Lab Results\parsub -Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#1: Lithium \parsub -Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#2: Cesium \parsub -} - -\justification{ -This makes sense -} - -\makeheader -\makedata -\makedoc -\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.log b/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6845afc --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.log @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 12 JUN 2019 12:31 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**bonds.tex +(./bonds.tex (../cer.tex) +! Misplaced \cr. + \cr + +\data ...olid & Solid & Solid \cr \noalign {\line + } \head Appear\-ance and T... + +\@evidence ->\parsub \noindent \data + \parsub \smallskip I know this because ... + {\bf Evidence:} \parsub \@evidence + \smallskip +\item ...4em \vbox { \hsize 3.6015in \smallskip #1 + } \advance \count 10 by 1... + ...ce:} \parsub \@evidence \smallskip } + \item { {\bf Justificatio... +... +l.36 \makedoc + +? x +No pages of output. +PDF statistics: + 0 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.pdf b/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2becad7 Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.tex b/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8fbeedf --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/bonds/bonds.tex @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +\input ../cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\question{Based on a substance's properties, how can you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent?} +\claim{If a substance is solid at room temperature, has a crystalline structure, dissolves easily in water, and conducts electricity well, then it likely contains ionic bonds. Otherwise, it likely contains covalent bonds.} + +\def\data{ + \datastyle{0.6in} + \halign{ \vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \head Property & \head Oil & \head Corn\-starch & \head Sodium Chloride & \head Sodium Bicarbonate \cr + \noalign{\hrule} + \head State of Matter & Liquid & Solid & Solid & Solid \cr \noalign{\line} + \head Appear\-ance and Texture & Pale Yellow and Viscous, Amorphous & Powdery and White & Granular and White & Powdery and White \cr \noalign{\line} + \head Crystal\-line Structure (Yes/No) & No (not solid) & No (non-crystalline solid) & Yes & Yes \cr \noalign{\line} + \head Solubility in Water & None & None & All & Most \cr \noalign{\line} + \head Conduct\-ivity when in Water (Yes/No) & No & No & Yes & Yes \cr \noalign{\line} + \head Ionic or Covalent Bonds & Covalent & Covalent & Ionic & Ionic \cr \noalign{\line} + } +} +\evidence{\parsub \noindent\data\parsub\smallskip + I know this because all examined substances follow most trends as expected. Starting with the covalent substances, oil is liquid at room temperature, leading us to think it is covalent in line with the claim; cornstarch is solid, contradicting the trend, showing that these trends for ionic and covalent bonds aren't hard and fast. The more ``strict'' properties such as solubility in water, crystalline structure, and conductivity while in solution are, respectively none, none, and none---exactly as one would expect for covalent substances.\parsub + The ionic substances, in turn, satisfy the predictions much more readily. They are both solid at room temperature and have a crystalline structure visible macroscopically as grains or powder. Also, they mostly or completely dissolve in water and allow it to conduct electricity in solution---precisely as predicted by the claim. +} + +\justification{ + The properties listed occur in these examples and in general because of core structural differences in ionic and covalent bonds. The most important of these differences is the strong polarisation of ionic compounds. Such a polarisation is generated from the cations losing their outer valence shell to the anions.\parsub + The strongly polar nature of ionic compounds manifests in high (compared to covalent compounds) boiling and melting points because of the resultant high intermolecular forces. Covalent bonds have low boiling and melting points because they have lower intermolecular forces. Even if a given covalent bond is polar, ionic bonds are generally stronger because they contain strongly charged ions instead of generally uncharged atoms of which one more strongly attracts electrons. This can also explain why ionic compounds dissolve in water more readily than a typical covalent compound (generally nonpolar or weakly polar). The strong polarity of these ionic compounds allows the water, a weakly polar compound and a polar solvent, to dissolve the solute and dissociate the ions.\parsub + These dissociated ions are precisely why a solution of an ionic compound and water is extremely conductive---the electrons flow through the ions sliding around inside the liquid to generate an electric current. The crystals that ionic compounds form occur for a loosely related reason: the ions can associate very readily into 3-dimensional crystals (the bonds are just the strong attraction between the ions, which works the same with 20 pairs or with 200). These crystals also have low potential energy, making them one of the most stable forms for ionic compounds to be in. +} + +\makeheader +\makedoc +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/cer.tex b/cer/sem1/cer.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7a60ab1 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/cer.tex @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +\font\tinyx=cmr8 at 6pt \def\tiny{\tinyx \baselineskip=6pt} +\font\headx=cmb8 at 9pt \def\head{\headx \baselineskip=9pt} +\font\bigx=cmb14 \def\big{\bigx \baselineskip=14pt} + +\hoffset -0.5in +\voffset -0.5in +\hsize 7.5in +\vsize 10in + +\catcode `\@11 +\def\@name{} +\def\@course{} +\def\@teacher{} +\def\name#1{\def\@name{#1}} +\def\course#1{\def\@course{#1}} +\def\teacher#1{\def\@teacher{#1}} +\def\makeheader{ +\noindent Your Name: \@name +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +\noindent Course: \@course +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +\noindent Teacher: \@teacher +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +} + +\long\def\column#1#2{ %width %count %text= + \long\def\item##1{ + \noindent \vrule \vbox{ + \hrule \hsize#1 ##1 + \hrule + }\vrule\par \vskip -1.5pt + } + #2% +} + +\long\def\row#1#2#3{ %width %count %text + \count10=0 + \long\def\item##1{ + \hskip 0.4em + \vbox{ + \hsize #1 \smallskip + ##1 + } + \advance \count10 by 1 \ifnum\count10<#2 \vrule \fi + } + \hbox{\hskip -0.15em #3 \hskip -0.6em} +} + +\def\@question{} +\def\question#1{\def\@question{#1}} +\def\@claim{} \def\claim#1{\def\@claim{#1}} +\long\def\@evidence{} \long\def\evidence#1{\def\@evidence{#1}} +\long\def\@justification{} \long\def\justification#1{\def\@justification{#1}} + +\def\@data{} \dimendef\@tablewidth=1 +\def\data#1#2#3{ + \dimen1=#2 + \def\endlinex{\cr \noexpand\endliner} + \edef\@data{#3} + \def\preamb{#1} +} + +%\def\cp#1{#1} +%\def\preambloop{ +% & \vrule \text{##} +% \advance \@columns by -1 +% \ifnum \@columns>0 \span\preambloop \fi +%} +%\def\makepreamb{ +% \vrule width 1pt \text{##} +% \advance \@columns by -1 +% \ifnum \@columns>0 \span\preambloop \fi +% \vrule width 1pt \cr +%} + +\def\makedata{ + \def\text##1{\tiny \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000 \hbox to \@tablewidth{\hskip1em \vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \advance \@tablewidth by -2.25em \hsize\@tablewidth ##1 \smallskip} \hskip1em} } + \def\endliner{\noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} + \halign{\span\preamb + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \@data + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } +} + +\long\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} +\long\def\makedoc{ + \column{7.4in}{ + \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} \@question}} + \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} \@claim}} + \item{\row{3.6015in}{2}{ + \item{ {\bf Evidence:}\par \noindent\makedata\par\smallskip \@evidence \smallskip} + \item{ {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:} \par\@justification \smallskip } + }} + } +} diff --git a/cer/sem1/changes/changes.log b/cer/sem1/changes/changes.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1294d03 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/changes/changes.log @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 10 JUN 2019 11:26 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**changes.tex +(./changes.tex (./cer.tex) [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdfte +x/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) +Output written on changes.pdf (1 page, 61697 bytes). +PDF statistics: + 51 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 17 compressed objects within 1 object stream + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/changes/changes.pdf b/cer/sem1/changes/changes.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed49934 Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/changes/changes.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/changes/changes.tex b/cer/sem1/changes/changes.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5985427 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/changes/changes.tex @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +\input cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\def\data{ + \def\line{\hrule height 0.05pt} + \def\width{1.05in} + \def\style{\tiny \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000} + \def\text##1{\ \style \hbox to \width{\vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \hsize\width ##1}} } + \halign{ \vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \hfil & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \head Material & \head Change(s) Observed & \head Type of Change (Physical or Chemical) \cr + \noalign{\hrule} + Calcium Carbonate & The substance was crushed into a fine powder (particle size decreased) & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} + Calcium Carbonate and Hydrochloric Acid & The two substances mixed and began to release gas & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Water & The substance was heated and began to release gas (water vapor) as it boiled & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} + Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate (CSP) & The substance was heated, causing it to release gas, + lose volume, and change color from blue to white & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Iron Filings and Sulfur & The two substances were stirred together, changing color to an olive. + Then, a magnet was placed above the pile, and iron filings were pulled onto it. & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} + Potassium Iodide and Lead Nitrate & The lead nitrate (liquid) was poured into potassium iodide (liquid), and + they changed color from both light blue to yellow. & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid & Magnesium was placed into hydrochloric acid, significantly increasing the temperature; + bubbles were released on the magnesium strip, and the magnesium disappeared & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Candle & The top of the candle's wick was lit, starting a flame which burned away the wick and + melted much of the candle wax, refrozen at the bottom of the candle & Physical and Chemical \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } +} + +\def\parsub{\par} +\def\quadspace{\ \ \ \ } \def\qquadspace{\quadspace\quadspace} +\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} + +\makeheader +\column{7.4in}{ + \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} How can you distinguish a physical change from a chemical change?}}% + \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} If a substance undergoes a chemical change, it will not retain its original properties because a new substance is formed.}} + \item{\row{3.6in}{2}{ + \item{ + {\bf Evidence:} \vskip2ex \data \vskip0.5ex \qquad Certain Chemical and Physical Changes \parsub + I know this because all observed chemical changes form\-ed substances with new properties. For example, the calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid combined to create a substance (the released gas) which was gaseous at room temperature. The CSP chemical change also demonstrates this because, when heated, it created a substance which was white and powdery (in contrast to its original form). \parsub + The physical changes prove the inverse: ``if a substance undergoes a physical change, it will retain most of its original properties.'' Heating water, for example, left water with the same properties as before (other than temperature). Stirring iron filing and sulfur, another physical change, left two substances with precisely the same properties as before -- clearly evidenced by the magnet pulling out the still magnetically attracted iron filings. \parsub + \vskip1ex + } + \item{ + {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:}\parsub + A chemical change is defined as ``a change in the identity and properties of matter.'' A physical change is defined as ``a change in one or more physical properties of a substance but not in the identity of the substance.'' Thus, it seems reasonable that a chemical change would result in the change of a substance's identity and consequently its properties (the essential elements of any form of identity). The numerous examples of chemical structure's significant effect on the properties of a substance also show that any minor or major change in structure (all chemical changes) or makeup can drastically modify a substance.\parsub + The properties which change only during chemical chan\-ges are chemical properties, and these can also be used to differentiate from physical changes which still change physical properties (such as temperature --- a physical property --- when water was heated, as compared to color --- a chemical property --- changing when CSP was heated). Also, because chemical changes can modify both chemical and physical changes, any given chemical change likely changes the majority of properties of a substance. + \vskip1ex + } + }} +} + +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.log b/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..504386a --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.log @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 11 JUN 2019 12:55 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**changes0.tex +(./changes0.tex (./cer.tex) +Overfull \hbox (23.01698pt too wide) in paragraph at lines 44--45 +[]\tenrm 2 |[]| | + +\hbox(15.68887+0.0)x542.025, glue set - 1.0 +.\hbox(0.0+0.0)x20.0 +.\tenrm 2 +.\glue 3.33333 plus 1.66666 minus 1.11111 +.\glue 3.33333 plus 1.66666 minus 1.11111 +.\rule(*+*)x0.4 +.etc. + +[1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdftex/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) +Output written on changes0.pdf (1 page, 62121 bytes). +PDF statistics: + 51 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 17 compressed objects within 1 object stream + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.pdf b/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cb01344 Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.tex b/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6618aa9 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/changes/changes0.tex @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +\input cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\def\data{ + \def\line{\hrule height 0.05pt} + \def\width{1.05in} + \def\style{\tiny \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000} + \def\text##1{\ \style \hbox to \width{\vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \hsize\width ##1}} } + \halign{ \vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \hfil & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \head Material & \head Change(s) Observed & \head Type of Change (Physical or Chemical) \cr + \noalign{\hrule} + Calcium Carbonate & The substance was crushed into a fine powder (particle size decreased) & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} + Calcium Carbonate and Hydrochloric Acid & The two substances mixed and began to release gas & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Water & The substance was heated and began to release gas (water vapor) as it boiled & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} + Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate (CSP) & The substance was heated, causing it to release gas, + lose volume, and change color from blue to white & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Iron Filings and Sulfur & The two substances were stirred together, changing color to an olive. + Then, a magnet was placed above the pile, and iron filings were pulled onto it. & Physical \cr \noalign{\line} + Potassium Iodide and Lead Nitrate & The lead nitrate (liquid) was poured into potassium iodide (liquid), and + they changed color from both light blue to yellow. & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Magnesium and Hydrochloric Acid & Magnesium was placed into hydrochloric acid, significantly increasing the temperature; + bubbles were released on the magnesium strip, and the magnesium disappeared & Chemical \cr \noalign{\line} + Candle & The top of the candle's wick was lit, starting a flame which burned away the wick and + melted much of the candle wax, refrozen at the bottom of the candle & Physical and Chemical \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } +} + +\def\parsub{\par} +\def\quadspace{\ \ \ \ } \def\qquadspace{\quadspace\quadspace} +\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} + +\question{question placeholder} +\claim{claim placeholder} +\evidence{some cool ass evidence} +\justification{this makes sense because} + +\makeheader +\makedoc +\column{7.4in}{2}{ + \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} How can you distinguish a physical change from a chemical change?}}% + \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} If a substance undergoes a chemical change, it will not retain its original properties because a new substance is formed.}} + \item{\row{3.6in}{2}{ + \item{ + {\bf Evidence:} \vskip2ex \data \vskip0.5ex \qquad Certain Chemical and Physical Changes \parsub + I know this because all observed chemical changes form\-ed substances with new properties. For example, the calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid combined to create a substance (the released gas) which was gaseous at room temperature. The CSP chemical change also demonstrates this because, when heated, it created a substance which was white and powdery (in contrast to its original form). \parsub + The physical changes prove the inverse: ``if a substance undergoes a physical change, it will retain most of its original properties.'' Heating water, for example, left water with the same properties as before (other than temperature). Stirring iron filing and sulfur, another physical change, left two substances with precisely the same properties as before -- clearly evidenced by the magnet pulling out the still magnetically attracted iron filings. \parsub + \vskip1ex + } + \item{ + {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:}\parsub + A chemical change is defined as ``a change in the identity and properties of matter.'' A physical change is defined as ``a change in one or more physical properties of a substance but not in the identity of the substance.'' Thus, it seems reasonable that a chemical change would result in the change of a substance's identity and consequently its properties (the essential elements of any form of identity). The numerous examples of chemical structure's significant effect on the properties of a substance also show that any minor or major change in structure (all chemical changes) or makeup can drastically modify a substance.\parsub + The properties which change only during chemical chan\-ges are chemical properties, and these can also be used to differentiate from physical changes which still change physical properties (such as temperature --- a physical property --- when water was heated, as compared to color --- a chemical property --- changing when CSP was heated). Also, because chemical changes can modify both chemical and physical changes, any given chemical change likely changes the majority of properties of a substance. + \vskip1ex + } + }} +} + +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame.log b/cer/sem1/flame/flame.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e7c955d --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/flame/flame.log @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 12 JUN 2019 19:56 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**flame.tex +(./flame.tex (../cer.tex) +! Missing } inserted. + + } + + & + { \head Ionic Compound in Solution & + Observed Flame Color \cr \no... + +\text ...skip 1ex \noindent \hsize \@tablewidth #1 + \smallskip }} +\makedata ...\@data \noalign {\hrule height 1pt} } + + ...\parsub \parsub \noindent \makedata + \parsub \smallskip \@evide... +... +l.36 \makedoc + +? x +No pages of output. +PDF statistics: + 0 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame.pdf b/cer/sem1/flame/flame.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a41c0a Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/flame/flame.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame.tex b/cer/sem1/flame/flame.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..80a8f45 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/flame/flame.tex @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +\input ../cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\question{Based on a substance's properties, how can you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent?} +\claim{If a substance is solid at room temperature, has a crystalline structure, dissolves easily in water, and conducts electricity well, then it likely contains ionic bonds. Otherwise, it likely contains covalent bonds.} + +\data{2}{1.65in}{ + \head Ionic Compound in Solution & Observed Flame Color \cr + \noalign{\hrule} + $HCl$ Solution (baseline) \ampsub blue \endlinex + 0.5M calcium chloride ($CaCl_2$) \ampsub orange-red \endlinex + 0.5M sodium chloride ($NaCl$) \ampsub orange-yellow \endlinex + 0.5M barium chloride ($BaCl_2$) \ampsub pale green \endlinex + 0.5M lithium chloride ($LiCl$) \ampsub red \endlinex + 0.5M copper(II) chloride ($CuCl_2$) \ampsub blue-green \endlinex + 0.5M cesium chloride ($CsCl$) \ampsub blue-violet \endlinex + Unknown Solution \#1 \ampsub red \endlinex + Unknown Solution \#2 \ampsub blue-violet \endlinex +} +\evidence{%\parsub \noindent\data\parsub\smallskip +\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad Lab Results\parsub +Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#1: Lithium \parsub +Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#2: Cesium \parsub +} + +\justification{ +This makes sense +} + +\makeheader +\makedoc +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.log b/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c8dbb92 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.log @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 19 JUN 2019 11:56 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**flame0.tex +(./flame0.tex (../cer.tex) [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdfte +x/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) +Output written on flame0.pdf (1 page, 74728 bytes). +PDF statistics: + 54 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 23 compressed objects within 1 object stream + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.pdf b/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1e9fbd9 Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.tex b/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b117c71 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/flame/flame0.tex @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +\input ../cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\question{How can you use flame color to identify the metal ion in an unknown compound?} +\claim{If an unknown metal ion's flame color matches that of a known metal ion, then the metal ion likely is the same because metal ions produce characteristic colors when burned.} + +\data{\vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \cr}{1.65in}{ + \head Ionic Compound in Solution & \head Observed Flame Color \cr \noalign{\hrule} + $HCl$ Solution (baseline) & blue \endlinex + 0.5M calcium chloride ($CaCl_2$) & orange-red \endlinex + 0.5M sodium chloride ($NaCl$) & orange-yellow \endlinex + 0.5M barium chloride ($BaCl_2$) & pale green \endlinex + 0.5M lithium chloride ($LiCl$) & red \endlinex + 0.5M copper(II) chloride ($CuCl_2$) & blue-green \endlinex + 0.5M cesium chloride ($CsCl$) & blue-violet \endlinex + Unknown Solution \#1 & red \endlinex + Unknown Solution \#2 & blue-violet \endlinex +} + +\evidence{ +\centerline{Lab Results} +\centerline{Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#1: Lithium} +\centerline{Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#2: Cesium} +I know that the claim is true because all studied metal-chloride salts have different colors. The $LiCl$ salt, for example, burns a characteristic red which is backed up by an identical chemical solution burning the same color. All other examples on the above list have unique colors, and all samples of the same ions produce the same colors (as can be logically expected). The other example of the last property allowing identification of a given metal ion is $CsCl$, the second unknown solution which is blue-violet in both cases. This also gives a good clue as to the investigative question: one can determine the given metal ion of an unknown substance by cross-checking its flame test with the flame test of known substances. +} + +\justification{ +The ability to identify which metal ion is in a given unknown substance makes sense because when heating occurs from the Bunsen Burner, electrons within the metal ion become excited when they absorb the light. Then, they release photons in line with their atomic (emission) spectrum. The mixture of these photons produces a specific color---the characteristic color of the flame. Because atomic spectra are unique, any given set of compounds with different metal ions will always have different characteristic colors. These are also consistent between two atoms of the same element, further corroborating previously noted properties. As described in the evidence section, these properties of consistency and uniqueness mean that a cross-checking procedure would work to identify an unknown ionic compound's metal ion. +} + +\makeheader +\makedoc +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.log b/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b4e57c3 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.log @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 13 JUN 2019 15:06 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**flame1.tex +(./flame1.tex [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdftex/updmap/pdft +ex.map}] ) +Output written on flame1.pdf (1 page, 35084 bytes). +PDF statistics: + 16 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 10 compressed objects within 1 object stream + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.pdf b/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2301a60 Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.tex b/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f02dc6e --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/flame/flame1.tex @@ -0,0 +1,104 @@ +\font\tinyx=cmr8 at 6pt \def\tiny{\tinyx \baselineskip=6pt} +\font\headx=cmb8 at 9pt \def\head{\headx \baselineskip=9pt} + +\hoffset -0.5in +\voffset -0.5in +\hsize 7.5in +\vsize 10in + +\catcode `\@11 +\def\@name{} +\def\@course{} +\def\@teacher{} +\def\name#1{\def\@name{#1}} +\def\course#1{\def\@course{#1}} +\def\teacher#1{\def\@teacher{#1}} +\def\makeheader{ +\noindent Your Name: \@name +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +\noindent Course: \@course +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +\noindent Teacher: \@teacher +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +} + +\def\column#1#2{ %width %count %text= + \def\item##1{ + \noindent \vrule \vbox{ + \hrule \hsize#1 ##1 + \hrule + }\vrule\par \vskip -1.5pt + } + #2% +} + +\def\row#1#2#3{ %width %count %text + \count10=0 + \def\item##1{ + \hskip 0.4em + \vbox{ + \hsize #1 \smallskip + ##1 + } + \advance \count10 by 1 \ifnum\count10<#2 \vrule \fi + } + \hbox{\hskip -0.15em #3 \hskip -0.6em} +} + +\def\@question{} +\def\question#1{\def\@question{#1}} +\def\@claim{} \def\claim#1{\def\@claim{#1}} +\def\@evidence{} \def\evidence#1{\def\@evidence{#1}} +\def\@justification{} \def\justification#1{\def\@justification{#1}} + +\def\@data{} \def\@columns{} \dimendef\@tablewidth=1 +\def\data#1#2#3{ + \def\@columns{#1} \dimen1=#2\relax + \def\@data{#3} +} + +\def\makedata{ + \def\text##1{\ \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000 \hbox to \@tablewidth{\vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \hsize\@tablewidth ##1 \smallskip}} } + \gdef\endlinex{\cr \noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} + \halign{\vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \text{##} \vrule width 1pt & ## \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \@data + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } +} + +\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} +\def\parsub{\par} +\def\makedoc{ + \column{7.4in}{ + \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} \@question}} + \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} \@claim}} + \item{\row{3.6015in}{2}{ + \item{ {\bf Evidence:} \parsub\parsub \noindent\makedata\parsub\smallskip \@evidence \smallskip} + \item{ {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:} \parsub \@justification \smallskip } + }} + } +} + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\question{Based on a substance's properties, how can you determine whether its bonds are ionic or covalent?} +\claim{If a substance is solid at room temperature, has a crystalline structure, dissolves easily in water, and conducts electricity well, then it likely contains ionic bonds. Otherwise, it likely contains covalent bonds.} + +\data{2}{1.65in}{testtest & xrioe &\endlinex this is & a line &\cr} +\evidence{%\parsub \noindent\data\parsub\smallskip +\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad Lab Results\parsub +Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#1: Lithium \parsub +Metal ion in Unknown Solution \#2: Cesium \parsub +} + +\justification{ +This makes sense +} + +\makeheader +\makedata +\makedoc +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.log b/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c9df912 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.log @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 20 JUN 2019 15:33 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**limiting-reactant.tex +(./limiting-reactant.tex (../cer.tex) [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/font +s/map/pdftex/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) +Output written on limiting-reactant.pdf (1 page, 79762 bytes). +PDF statistics: + 65 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 30 compressed objects within 1 object stream + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.pdf b/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f4a32ab Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.tex b/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ce549f --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/yield/limiting-reactant.tex @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +\input ../cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\question{While observing a chemical reaction, how can you tell which reactant is limiting?} +\claim{If a substance is the limiting reactant, then it will be fully consumed by the time the reaction completes because it is the reactant that reacts completely and the reaction cannot proceed further.} + +\long\def\makedata{ + \vskip 0pt \noindent{\big Trial 1} + + \def\width{0.5in} + \def\text##1{\hbox{\vbox{\hsize\width \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000 \noindent##1}}} + \def\style{\vrule width 1pt \head \hfil \text{####} \hfil & \vrule width 0.05pt \hfil #### \hfil & \vrule width 0.05pt \hfil #### \hfil & \vrule width 2pt \hfil #### \hfil & \vrule width 0.05pt \hfil #### \hfil \vrule width 1pt \crcr} + \def\cr{\crcr \noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} + \halign{ \span\style + \noalign{\dimen1=\hsize \advance \dimen1 by -0.65in \hfil \vbox{\moveright0.185in\vbox{\hrule width \dimen1 height 1pt}} \vskip -5pt} + \omit & \omit \vrule width 0.05pt \ $3CuCl_2(aq)$ & \omit + $2Al(s)$ & \omit $\rightarrow$ $3Cu(s)$ & \omit + $2AlCl_3(aq)$ \vrule width 1pt \cr + Measur\-ed Mass (g) & 2.50 & 0.50 & N/A & N/A \cr + Molar Mass (g/mol) & 134.45 & 26.98 & N/A & N/A \cr + Actual Moles (mol) & 0.019 & 0.019 & N/A & N/A \cr + } + + \smallskip The limiting reactant is copper chloride because there was still aluminum left over after the reaction stopped. The reaction has a molar ratio of $CuCl_2:Al=3:2$, which is confirmed by this trial (copper chloride is limiting because $CuCl_2:Al$ ratio $= 1:1 < 3:2$) + + \bigskip \noindent{\big Trial 2} + + \halign{ \span\style + \noalign{\dimen1=\hsize \advance \dimen1 by -0.59in \hfil \vbox{\moveright0.255in\vbox{\hrule width \dimen1 height 1pt}} \vskip -5pt} + \omit & \omit \vrule width 0.05pt \ $3CuCl_2(aq)$ & \omit + $2Al(s)$ & \omit $\rightarrow$ $3Cu(s)$ & \omit + $2AlCl_3(aq)$ \vrule width 1pt \cr + Measur\-ed Mass (g) & 2.50 & 0.25 & \vbox{\tiny \parindent=0in \hsize 0.57in \raggedright Filter paper alone: 0.27g \par Filter Paper + Cu: 0.98g \par Cu alone: 0.71g} & N/A \cr + Molar Mass (g/mol) & 134.45 & 26.98 & 63.55 & N/A \cr + Actual Moles (mol) & 0.019 & 0.0093 & 0.011g Cu & N/A \cr + } + + \smallskip The limiting reactant is aluminum because all of the aluminum dissolved, and the molar ratio of $CuCl_2$ to $Al > 3:2$. +} + +\evidence{ +This evidence shows that the claim is true because whe\-re copper chloride should be the limiting reactant theoretically, it completely reacted and the aluminum was left over. Similarly, trial 2 (limiting reactant should theoretically be aluminum because of the ratio) saw that the aluminum fully dissolved. When comparing the two trials, it can be clearly seen that the "removal" of aluminum caused the substance which didn't allow the reaction to be completed to change. +} +\justification{ +This result makes sense because the limiting reactant would allow the reaction to continue if more were added, by definition. This can lead us to conclude that no more of the limiting reactant is available at the end of the reaction because then adding more of the limiting reactant could not possibly allow the reaction to continue. The reactant being unavailable at the end of the reaction is equivalent to the limiting reactant being fully consumed by reacting completely in all of its particles. +} + +\makeheader +\makedoc +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem1/yield/texput.log b/cer/sem1/yield/texput.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6a3f7d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem1/yield/texput.log @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +This is TeX, Version 3.14159265 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=tex 2019.5.8) 20 JUN 2019 13:21 +**\underline{text} + +*$\underline{text}$ +! Missing $ inserted. + + $ + + \underline +<*> $\underline + {text}$ +? + +*\underline{$text$} +! Missing $ inserted. + + $ + + \underline +<*> \underline + {$text$} +? +! Missing } inserted. + + } + + $ +<*> \underline{$ + text$} +? +! Extra }, or forgotten $. + } + +<*> \underline{$text$} + +? + +*\underline$no$ +! Missing { inserted. + + $ +<*> \underline$ + no$ +? +! Missing } inserted. + + } + + $ +<*> \underline$ + no$ +? + +*$\underline2$ +! 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Emergency stop. +<*> $\underline{text}$ + +End of file on the terminal! + +No pages of output. diff --git a/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.log b/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.log new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2b31c53 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.log @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 26 JUN 2019 08:10 +entering extended mode + restricted \write18 enabled. + %&-line parsing enabled. +**boyle.tex +(./boyle.tex (../cer.tex) [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/fonts/map/pdftex +/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) +Output written on boyle.pdf (1 page, 95687 bytes). +PDF statistics: + 82 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) + 32 compressed objects within 1 object stream + 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) + 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) + diff --git a/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.pdf b/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.pdf new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7f74801 Binary files /dev/null and b/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.pdf differ diff --git a/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.tex b/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..363ebe4 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem2/boyle/boyle.tex @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +\input ../cer.tex + +\name{Holden Rohrer} +\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} +\teacher{Kerr} + +\question{What is the effect of pressure on the volume of a gas?} +\claim{If the pressure on a gas is increased, then its volume will decrease because the gas molecules will be pushed together. Furthermore, the relationship between pressure, $P$, and volume, $V$, should be an inverse proportion, in which $PV$ is constant and $P=kV^{-1}$ for some constant, $k$} + +\long\def\makedata{ + \dimendef\tablewidth=1 + \def\text##1{\tiny \hbadness=10000 \tolerance=10000 \hbox to \tablewidth{\hskip1em \vbox{\smallskip \noindent \advance \tablewidth by -2.25em \hsize\@tablewidth ##1 \smallskip} \hskip1em}} + \def\htext##1{\head \hbadness=10000 \tolerance=10000 \vrule width 0.05pt \hbox to \tablewidth{\hskip0.5em \vbox{\smallskip \noindent \advance \tablewidth by -1.25em \hsize\@tablewidth ##1 \smallskip} \hskip0.5em}} + \def\endliner{\noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} + \qquad\qquad\qquad Circular Top of the Syringe + \smallskip + \tablewidth=1in + \halign{\vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule width 0.05pt \text{##} & \vrule width 0.05pt \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \crcr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{Diameter ($cm$)} & \omit \vrule width 0.05pt \htext{Radius, $r$ ($cm$)} & \omit \vrule width 0.05pt \htext{Area, $\pi r^2$ ($cm^2$)} \vrule width 1pt \cr \endliner + 3.60 & 1.80 & 10.2 \cr \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } + \bigskip + \tablewidth=0.6in + \halign{\vrule width 1pt \text{##} & \vrule width 0.05pt \text{##} & \vrule width 0.05pt \text{##} & \vrule width 0.05pt \text{##} & \vrule width 0.05pt \text{##} \vrule width 1pt \crcr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + Trials & \omit \htext{Mass on Syringe ($kg$)} & \omit \htext{Press\-ure, $P$ (${kg}\over{cm^2}$)} & \omit \htext{Volu\-me, $V$ ($mL$)} & \omit \htext{$PV$} \vrule width 1pt \cr \endliner + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{No Book or Weight} & 0 & 1.03 & 50.0 & 51.5 \cr \endliner + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{Book Only} & 0.498 & 1.08 & 47.5 & 51.3 \cr \endliner + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{Book + 1kg of weight} & 1.498 & 1.18 & 43.5 & 51.3 \cr \endliner + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{Book + 2kg of weight} & 2.498 & 1.27 & 40.5 & 51.4 \cr \endliner + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{Book + 3kg of weight} & 3.498 & 1.37 & 37.5 & 51.4 \cr \endliner + \omit \vrule width 1pt \hskip -0.2pt \htext{Book + 4kg of weight} & 4.498 & 1.47 & 35.0 & 51.5 \cr + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } +} + +\evidence{ + If $PV$ remains constant over several trials of different pressures and volumes (controlling for amount of gas, type of gas, temperature, etc. of course) within a margin of mathematical error, $P=kV^{-1}$ where $k$ is a constant ($P$ and $V$ are inversely proportional). The experimental results confirmed that pressure and volume are inversely related, reaffirming Boyle's Law (pressure and volume are inversely proportional). The power regression confirmed this. +} + +\justification{ + As partially explored in the claim, increased pressure pushes gas molecules together---decreasing volume. This experiment measures those two features well because the book and extra weights placed on top of the syringe's plunger confer an equally distributed force to the part of the plunger inside the syringe, forcing the air to "push back" harder than if there were no weight at all in order to maintain equilibrium. The only other property of the air in the syringe which can change is volume (which is unconstrained by any other variable than pressure), so equilibrium is always maintained by the volume changing in proportion with Boyle's Law. +} + +\makedoc +\bye diff --git a/cer/sem2/cer.tex b/cer/sem2/cer.tex new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d85d3c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/cer/sem2/cer.tex @@ -0,0 +1,96 @@ +\font\tinyx=cmr8 at 6pt \font\tinym=cmmi8 at 6pt \font\tinyms=cmsy8 at 6pt \def\tiny{\tinym \tinyms \tinyx \baselineskip=6pt} +\font\headx=cmb8 at 9pt \font\headm=cmmi8 at 9pt \font\headms=cmsy8 at 9pt \def\head{\headm \headms \headx \baselineskip=9pt} +%\font\bigx=cmb14 \font\bigm=cmmi14 \font\bigms=\def\big{\bigx \bigm \baselineskip=14pt} + +\hoffset -0.5in +\voffset -0.5in +\hsize 7.5in +\vsize 10in + +\catcode `\@11 +\def\@name{} +\def\@course{} +\def\@teacher{} +\def\name#1{\def\@name{#1}} +\def\course#1{\def\@course{#1}} +\def\teacher#1{\def\@teacher{#1}} +\def\makeheader{ +\noindent Your Name: \@name +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +\noindent Course: \@course +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +\noindent Teacher: \@teacher +\vskip 2ex plus 0pt +} + +\long\def\column#1#2{ %width %count %text= + \long\def\item##1{ + \noindent \vrule \vbox{ + \hrule \hsize#1 ##1 + \hrule + }\vrule\par \vskip -1.5pt + } + #2% +} + +\long\def\row#1#2#3{ %width %count %text + \count10=0 + \long\def\item##1{ + \hskip 0.4em + \vbox{ + \hsize #1 \smallskip + ##1 + } + \advance \count10 by 1 \ifnum\count10<#2 \vrule \fi + } + \hbox{\hskip -0.15em #3 \hskip -0.6em} +} + +\def\@question{} +\def\question#1{\def\@question{#1}} +\def\@claim{} \def\claim#1{\def\@claim{#1}} +\long\def\@evidence{} \long\def\evidence#1{\def\@evidence{#1}} +\long\def\@justification{} \long\def\justification#1{\def\@justification{#1}} + +\def\@data{} \dimendef\@tablewidth=1 +\def\data#1#2#3{ + \dimen1=#2 + \def\endlinex{\cr \noexpand\endliner} + \edef\@data{#3} + \def\preamb{#1} +} + +%\def\cp#1{#1} +%\def\preambloop{ +% & \vrule \text{##} +% \advance \@columns by -1 +% \ifnum \@columns>0 \span\preambloop \fi +%} +%\def\makepreamb{ +% \vrule width 1pt \text{##} +% \advance \@columns by -1 +% \ifnum \@columns>0 \span\preambloop \fi +% \vrule width 1pt \cr +%} + +\def\makedata{ + \def\text##1{\tiny \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000 \hbox to \@tablewidth{\hskip1em \vbox{\vskip1ex \noindent \advance \@tablewidth by -2.25em \hsize\@tablewidth ##1 \smallskip} \hskip1em} } + \def\endliner{\noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} + \halign{\span\preamb + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + \@data + \noalign{\hrule height 1pt} + } +} + +\long\def\pad#1{\smallskip #1 \smallskip} +\long\def\makedoc{ + \column{7.4in}{ + \item{\pad{{\bf Question:} \@question}} + \item{\pad{{\bf Claim:} \@claim}} + \item{\row{3.6015in}{2}{ + \item{ {\bf Evidence:}\par \noindent\makedata\par\smallskip \@evidence \smallskip} + \item{ {\bf Justification (Reasoning) of the Evidence:} \par\@justification \smallskip } + }} + } +} diff --git a/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.log b/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.log deleted file mode 100644 index c9df912..0000000 --- a/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,22 +0,0 @@ -This is pdfTeX, Version 3.14159265-2.6-1.40.20 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=pdftex 2019.5.8) 20 JUN 2019 15:33 -entering extended mode - restricted \write18 enabled. - %&-line parsing enabled. -**limiting-reactant.tex -(./limiting-reactant.tex (../cer.tex) [1{/usr/local/texlive/2019/texmf-var/font -s/map/pdftex/updmap/pdftex.map}] ) -Output written on limiting-reactant.pdf (1 page, 79762 bytes). -PDF statistics: - 65 PDF objects out of 1000 (max. 8388607) - 30 compressed objects within 1 object stream - 0 named destinations out of 1000 (max. 500000) - 1 words of extra memory for PDF output out of 10000 (max. 10000000) - diff --git a/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.pdf b/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.pdf deleted file mode 100644 index f4a32ab..0000000 Binary files a/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.pdf and /dev/null differ diff --git a/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.tex b/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.tex deleted file mode 100644 index 8ce549f..0000000 --- a/cer/yield/limiting-reactant.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,49 +0,0 @@ -\input ../cer.tex - -\name{Holden Rohrer} -\course{FVS Chemistry AB 19.3} -\teacher{Kerr} - -\question{While observing a chemical reaction, how can you tell which reactant is limiting?} -\claim{If a substance is the limiting reactant, then it will be fully consumed by the time the reaction completes because it is the reactant that reacts completely and the reaction cannot proceed further.} - -\long\def\makedata{ - \vskip 0pt \noindent{\big Trial 1} - - \def\width{0.5in} - \def\text##1{\hbox{\vbox{\hsize\width \tolerance=10000 \hbadness=10000 \noindent##1}}} - \def\style{\vrule width 1pt \head \hfil \text{####} \hfil & \vrule width 0.05pt \hfil #### \hfil & \vrule width 0.05pt \hfil #### \hfil & \vrule width 2pt \hfil #### \hfil & \vrule width 0.05pt \hfil #### \hfil \vrule width 1pt \crcr} - \def\cr{\crcr \noalign{\hrule height 0.05pt}} - \halign{ \span\style - \noalign{\dimen1=\hsize \advance \dimen1 by -0.65in \hfil \vbox{\moveright0.185in\vbox{\hrule width \dimen1 height 1pt}} \vskip -5pt} - \omit & \omit \vrule width 0.05pt \ $3CuCl_2(aq)$ & \omit + $2Al(s)$ & \omit $\rightarrow$ $3Cu(s)$ & \omit + $2AlCl_3(aq)$ \vrule width 1pt \cr - Measur\-ed Mass (g) & 2.50 & 0.50 & N/A & N/A \cr - Molar Mass (g/mol) & 134.45 & 26.98 & N/A & N/A \cr - Actual Moles (mol) & 0.019 & 0.019 & N/A & N/A \cr - } - - \smallskip The limiting reactant is copper chloride because there was still aluminum left over after the reaction stopped. The reaction has a molar ratio of $CuCl_2:Al=3:2$, which is confirmed by this trial (copper chloride is limiting because $CuCl_2:Al$ ratio $= 1:1 < 3:2$) - - \bigskip \noindent{\big Trial 2} - - \halign{ \span\style - \noalign{\dimen1=\hsize \advance \dimen1 by -0.59in \hfil \vbox{\moveright0.255in\vbox{\hrule width \dimen1 height 1pt}} \vskip -5pt} - \omit & \omit \vrule width 0.05pt \ $3CuCl_2(aq)$ & \omit + $2Al(s)$ & \omit $\rightarrow$ $3Cu(s)$ & \omit + $2AlCl_3(aq)$ \vrule width 1pt \cr - Measur\-ed Mass (g) & 2.50 & 0.25 & \vbox{\tiny \parindent=0in \hsize 0.57in \raggedright Filter paper alone: 0.27g \par Filter Paper + Cu: 0.98g \par Cu alone: 0.71g} & N/A \cr - Molar Mass (g/mol) & 134.45 & 26.98 & 63.55 & N/A \cr - Actual Moles (mol) & 0.019 & 0.0093 & 0.011g Cu & N/A \cr - } - - \smallskip The limiting reactant is aluminum because all of the aluminum dissolved, and the molar ratio of $CuCl_2$ to $Al > 3:2$. -} - -\evidence{ -This evidence shows that the claim is true because whe\-re copper chloride should be the limiting reactant theoretically, it completely reacted and the aluminum was left over. Similarly, trial 2 (limiting reactant should theoretically be aluminum because of the ratio) saw that the aluminum fully dissolved. When comparing the two trials, it can be clearly seen that the "removal" of aluminum caused the substance which didn't allow the reaction to be completed to change. -} -\justification{ -This result makes sense because the limiting reactant would allow the reaction to continue if more were added, by definition. This can lead us to conclude that no more of the limiting reactant is available at the end of the reaction because then adding more of the limiting reactant could not possibly allow the reaction to continue. The reactant being unavailable at the end of the reaction is equivalent to the limiting reactant being fully consumed by reacting completely in all of its particles. -} - -\makeheader -\makedoc -\bye diff --git a/cer/yield/texput.log b/cer/yield/texput.log deleted file mode 100644 index 6a3f7d3..0000000 --- a/cer/yield/texput.log +++ /dev/null @@ -1,80 +0,0 @@ -This is TeX, Version 3.14159265 (TeX Live 2019) (preloaded format=tex 2019.5.8) 20 JUN 2019 13:21 -**\underline{text} - -*$\underline{text}$ -! Missing $ inserted. - - $ - - \underline -<*> $\underline - {text}$ -? - -*\underline{$text$} -! Missing $ inserted. - - $ - - \underline -<*> \underline - {$text$} -? -! Missing } inserted. - - } - - $ -<*> \underline{$ - text$} -? -! Extra }, or forgotten $. - } - -<*> \underline{$text$} - -? - -*\underline$no$ -! Missing { inserted. - - $ -<*> \underline$ - no$ -? -! Missing } inserted. - - } - - $ -<*> \underline$ - no$ -? - -*$\underline2$ -! 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The model postulates that: \begin{itemize} @@ -620,5 +620,43 @@ colorlinks=true Stoichiometry is the relationship between the relative quantities of substances taking part in a reaction or forming a compound, typically a ratio of whole integers. Stoichiometry is typically used in chemistry to determine the ratios between substances in which they react. For example, $H_2$ and $N_2$ react to form $NH_3$ in a ratio of $H:N=3:1$. However, if there are 5mol of $H_2$ and 1mol of $N_2$, then there is left 2mol of $H_2$, called the excess reactant. Because more nitrogen would allow continued reaction, nitrogen is called the limiting reactant. In general, the limiting and excess reactants in a reaction with uneven proportions can be determined with a similar calculus. Stoichiometry also extends to comparisons between reactants and products. If $2O_2 + H_2O \rightarrow H_2O_5$, 10 fully reacted moles of oxygen form 5 moles of the substance on the right (note that the substance makes no sense and isn't real). \subsubsection{Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield} Theoretical yield is ``the ideal maximum amount of a product that can be produced during a reaction, calculated from stoichiometric relationships.'' All examples above assumed that reactions occurr perfectly, consuming all of the reactants and creating the correct amount of product and nothing else. The amount of product created was the theoretical yield. However, real life doesn't usually have the same yield (actual yield) as predicted. Actual yield is almost always less than theoretical yield due to suboptimal reactant conditions and random factors. Percent yield is the ratio between actual yield and theoretical yield. +\section{Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws} + \subsection{Molar Masses} + \subsubsection{Moles and Avogadro's Number} + Moles (mol) are the SI unit for the amount of a substance, one mol being the same number of particles of a given substance as there are atoms in 12g of C-12, or $6.02*10^{23}$. Avogadro's number is that number of particles in a mol, and it is calculable from basic units of a carbon-12 atom, namely its atomic mass of $12amu$ and the fact that $1amu=1.66*10^{-24}g$ + \subsubsection{Molar Mass and Average Atomic Mass} + The mole and Avogadro's number relate average atomic mass and molar mass. Average atomic mass is the statistic displayed on the periodic table below a given element, in $\frac{amu}{atom}$. This is extensible to any arbitrary molecule, still in units $\frac{amu}{particle}$. Note that for a given substance, the molar mass (units $\frac{g}{mol}$) is equal to the average particle mass by definition of the mol. + \subsection{Introduction to Stoichiometry} + \subsubsection{Stoichiometry and Ratios} + Stoichiometry is based on ratios, such as $Reactant:Product$, $Reactant:Reactant$, or $Product:Product$. In the previous lesson, this was explored as the way to determine theoretical yield, so the foundation should already be set. Note that these ratios are molar ratios calculated from the ratios of the coefficients next to each compound in a balanced chemical equation. These ratios represent the amount of any two given substances in a balanced chemical reaction, ignoring total amount, and can be used to calculate the amounts of byproducts, amount of reactant required to react completely, limiting reactants, storage requirements, and how much product is created with a certain amount of reactant. + \subsection{Stoichiometric Calculations} + \subsubsection{Molar Mass and Mass-to-Mole Ratio} + Molar mass is in units of grams of element per mol. For example, $\frac{58.44g NaCl}{mol NaCl}$. This can be expanded to a given number of moles or a mass using dimensional analysis (note that dimensional analysis permits inversion of a ratio such as $\frac{mol NaCl}{58.44g NaCl}$). Also, for clarity's sake, the element formula next to each unit is necessary, and doesn't cancel. + \subsubsection{Interchemical Calculations} + Becuase of stoichiometric ratios as mentioned in the previous lesson, such as $\frac{mol NaCl}{mol Cl^+}$ in a table salt decomposition reaction, dimensional analysis can be further used to determine the mass of product created by a given chemical reaction. + \subsection{Gas Laws} + \subsubsection{Boyle's Law} + All gas laws are merely extensions of the ideal gas law mentioned in Unit II Topic 1.1. The ideal gas law is $\frac{P_1V_1}{N_1T_1}=\frac{P_2V_2}{N_2T_2}$ (N is number in moles, T is temperature in Kelvin, P is pressure, V is volume, and this holds for any two ideal gases according to Avogadro's Law). The first of these derivative laws is Boyle's Law: where quantity and temperature remain constant, pressure is inversely related to volume. This allows simple calculations relating changing volume and/or pressure of a gas. + \subsubsection{Other Laws} + \begin{tabular}{|c|c|} + \hline + Law & Relation \\ \hline + Boyle's Law & Volume and Pressure are inversely related \\ \hline + Charle's Law & Volume and Temperature are directly related \\ \hline + Gay-Lussac's Law & Pressure and Temperature are directly related \\ \hline + \end{tabular} + \subsubsection{Partial Pressure} + Partial pressure is "the fraction of the total pressure exerted by a mix of gases that is contributed by an individual gas." (i.e. the pressur of one gas in a mixture). $Partial pressure = \frac{Pressure if there were only the one gas}{Actual pressure}$. Dalton's Law states that the total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures. Note that the fraction which the partial pressure makes up of the total pressure is equal to the molar fraction by the ideal gas law and the fact that temperature and volume are the same for all gases. + \subsection{The Ideal Gas Law} + \subsubsection{Avogadro's Law} + Avogadro's Law states that "the volume of a gas is proportional to the moles of the gas when pressure and temperature are kept constant." This is the $N$ term in the ideal gas law mentioned in last lesson. Note that this is unrelated to the gas's makeup. + \subsubsection{Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law} + From Boyle's Law ($V\ispropto \frac{1}{P}$), Charle's Law ($V\ispropto T$), and Avogadro's Law ($V\ispropto n$), the ideal gas law of $V\ispropto \frac{nT}{P}$ can be derived. This is equivalent to $V=R(\frac{nT}{P})$ or $PV=nRT$ where $R$ is the gas constant. Because the ideal gas law is independent from the gas's identity, $R$ has only one value. However, ideal gases can diverge from real gases significantly in high pressure or low temperature environments. + \subsection{Gas Stoichiometry} + \subsubsection{Implications of Molar Volume: Avogadro's Principle} + As stated repeatedly in the previous two lessons, the volume of a mole of gas is irrelevant to its composition. This is exemplified by molar volume: one mole of any ideal gas at standard temperature and pressure ($0^{\circ}C=273K$ and $1atm = 101.3kPa = 760 torr$) always has a molar volume of $22.4L$. Molar volume varies with temperature and pressure but is consistent between substances. Molar volume implies Avogadro's Principle: ``if two gas samples contain the same number of particles, they will have the same volume at a given temperature and pressure.'' Avogadro's Principle implies that in stoichiometry (ratios of coefficients in chemical reactions), the numbers can represent ratios of particles, moles, or volumes. +\section{Reaction Rates and Equilibrium} + \subsection{Reaction Rate} + \subsubsection{} \end{document} diff --git a/notes/notes.toc b/notes/notes.toc index fb7874d..7ed5d77 100644 --- a/notes/notes.toc +++ b/notes/notes.toc @@ -145,3 +145,16 @@ \contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {Lesson 5:}Limiting Reactant and Percent Yield}{36}{subsection.4.5}% \contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 5.1:}Limiting Reactants and Stoichiometry}{36}{subsubsection.4.5.1}% \contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 5.2:}Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield}{37}{subsubsection.4.5.2}% +\contentsline {section}{\numberline {Unit V:}Stoichiometry and the Gas Laws}{37}{section.5}% +\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {Lesson 1:}Molar Masses}{37}{subsection.5.1}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 1.1:}Moles and Avogadro's Number}{37}{subsubsection.5.1.1}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 1.2:}Molar Mass and Average Atomic Mass}{37}{subsubsection.5.1.2}% +\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {Lesson 2:}Introduction to Stoichiometry}{37}{subsection.5.2}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 2.1:}Stoichiometry and Ratios}{37}{subsubsection.5.2.1}% +\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {Lesson 3:}Stoichiometric Calculations}{38}{subsection.5.3}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 3.1:}Molar Mass and Mass-to-Mole Ratio}{38}{subsubsection.5.3.1}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 3.2:}Interchemical Calculations}{38}{subsubsection.5.3.2}% +\contentsline {subsection}{\numberline {Lesson 4:}Gas Laws}{38}{subsection.5.4}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 4.1:}Boyle's Law}{38}{subsubsection.5.4.1}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 4.2:}Other Laws}{38}{subsubsection.5.4.2}% +\contentsline {subsubsection}{\numberline {Topic 4.3:}Partial Pressure}{38}{subsubsection.5.4.3}% -- cgit