Article I, Section 8 (on Congress)
- Enumerated powers
- Implied powers
"The legislative authority necessarily predominates" (Madison, #51)
    - The modern power of the presidency wasn't intentional
        - Article II gives very little express power. Mostly legislated
- The power struggles of the time influenced the founders
    - Senators represented each state legislature
    - House meant to represent the people
    - Class structure: senate = elite
        - Only in 1913 did the 17th amendment elected the Senate by pop.
        - Professional ruling class like Plato's society
        - "Big picture," "protectors of society"
        - The House also had class stratification.
Term length and constituencies
    - House
        - 435 members
        - Equally populated districts
        - 2 year term
    - Senate
        - 100 members (2 per state)
        - 6 year staggered terms
Governing rules (like parliamentary procedure)
- House has more and more strict rules (size, time limits)
- In the Senate, everyone can address an issue
Prestige!
- Senate is a less formal "coming-together," so it has prestige.
    - Represent the entirety of the state, so a huge amount of
        canvassing
    - Responsibility entrusted for 6 years
- House is less prestigious (strict rules, short terms, small areas)
    - Districts can be very small
    - Don't conduct impeachment trials
    - Less responsibility

Functions/Responsibilities of Congress
1) Lawmaking - the primary/intended purpose
    - Founders wanted broad (collective good) national policy
    - Vast majority of proposals (bills) don't become laws
        - Meant to be able to die in many ways
    - Congresspeople don't (mostly) write their own bills
        - Executive branch writes bills
        - Parties write proposals and help push them through
        - Interest groups
            - Like the executive branch, experts = interests
2) Constituent Services
    - Help out the people from your district
    - Casework (e.g. handling phone call complaints)
        - Acts as an access point to the political network
3) Representatives' two roles
    - (Burkian) Trustee: prevent constituents from enacting dumb laws
        - Act as part of the larger body
        - Senators play this role more often
    - Instructed Delegate
        - Do what your constituents want, based on polls, casework
        - House Representatives with a more sensitive seat
    - Instance: tobacco
        - Senators and Representatives hurt Big Tobacco as trustees
        - But Virginia's tobacco industry was harmed, so labor voted
          against Representatives who acted as Trustees
4) Oversight
    - How is the executive handling congressional legislature?
    - Confirmation/appointment powers (this is a check/balance)
    - Public hearings
        - Despite the quantity of these, things fall through the cracks
            - Ex: FEMA officer during Katrina lied on his resume.
        - There is a lot of legislation and officials.
        - These leaders are super important because quality trickles dwn
5) Public education
    - Agenda setting: what Congress cares about/addresses/investigates
    - Town halls are often representative -> constituent info
        - Email campaign
        - CSPAN
    - American public not actually very receptive to education
6) "Conflict Resolution and Accommodation"
    - Discussion, debate, hearings, compromise

Congressional Elections and Voting
- Factors influencing outcomes
    - Advertising is huge
    - Electoral design (future class)
    - Presidential elections
        - "Coattails" = popular president makes party more popular
            - Evidenced by swinging elections towards pres. party
            - "Short" or "long" coattails
    - Money!
        - Spend on increasing turnouts
        - Spend on constituents
        - VERY helpful but not sufficient
    - Big incumbent advantage (3 reasons - Mayhew)
        - Built-in offices and staff on the Hill
        - Network connections for a campaign
        - Committees and credit for working towards constituents
            - Universal credit = corona/cancer research, ex
            - Personal credit = stamp of approval on funds for district
        - Parties support reelections (money, ads) for tenure
        - Since 1968, >75% of incumbent senators are reelected and 90%
          of incumbent Representatives are reelected.
- Congressional Reapportionment
    - Redistricting for House, like Census-based.
    - Movement from North, NE southward and westward
    - Governors help control reapportionment, help control election
Permanent Reapportionment Act of 1929
- Didn't want to favor "urbanized" areas
    - Republicans in 1920 against "overrepresentation" of areas like
      Detroit
- Limits House to 435 (zero sum representation)
    - Encourages gerrymandering, district design
    - Restrict debate a bit, changed power-grab dynamics