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19e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1aa0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ac0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ae0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ba0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1bc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1be0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ca0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1cc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ce0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1da0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1dc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1de0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ea0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ec0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ee0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1fa0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1fc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1fe0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
2000 61 64 00 00 b3 00 00 00 f7 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 4a 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 e8 0f 00 00 cc 0f 00 00 ad..............J...............
2020 b3 0f 00 00 b2 0f 00 00 9c 0f 00 00 8f 0f 00 00 82 0f 00 00 72 0f 00 00 70 0f 00 00 6f 0f 00 00 ....................r...p...o...
2040 59 0f 00 00 58 0f 00 00 34 0f 00 00 17 0f 00 00 f1 0e 00 00 c8 0e 00 00 95 0e 00 00 4d 0e 00 00 Y...X...4...................M...
2060 1d 0e 00 00 1a 0e 00 00 19 0e 00 00 07 0e 00 00 f0 0d 00 00 e2 0d 00 00 b0 0d 00 00 75 0d 00 00 ............................u...
2080 21 0d 00 00 20 0d 00 00 1f 0d 00 00 0e 0d 00 00 0d 0d 00 00 02 0d 00 00 ea 0c 00 00 d9 0c 00 00 !...............................
20a0 d7 0c 00 00 ce 0c 00 00 cd 0c 00 00 9b 0c 00 00 5e 0c 00 00 2f 0c 00 00 b7 0b 00 00 ae 0b 00 00 ................^.../...........
20c0 c8 0a 00 00 bf 0a 00 00 23 0a 00 00 1a 0a 00 00 a3 09 00 00 9a 09 00 00 38 09 00 00 2f 09 00 00 ........#...............8.../...
20e0 af 08 00 00 a6 08 00 00 86 08 00 00 6e 08 00 00 fe 07 00 00 6c 07 00 00 c1 06 00 00 28 06 00 00 ............n.......l.......(...
2100 12 06 00 00 be 05 00 00 8c 05 00 00 21 05 00 00 18 05 00 00 82 04 00 00 79 04 00 00 b4 03 00 00 ............!...........y.......
2120 89 03 00 00 20 03 00 00 08 03 00 00 ca 02 00 00 9f 02 00 00 16 02 00 00 00 02 00 00 f7 01 00 00 ................................
2140 f6 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
2160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
2180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
21a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
21c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
21e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 ................................
2200 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ........\end{itemize}...........
2220 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 52 65 63 6f 67 6e 69 7a 65 64 20 65 78 69 73 74 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 ..\item.Recognized.existence.of.
2240 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 73 73 75 6d 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 6f 73 69 electrons,.but.assumed.that.posi
2260 74 69 76 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 65 72 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 73 20 74 68 65 6d tive.charge.counterbalances.them
2280 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 75 73 20 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 00 20 ,.and.the.atom.is.thus.neutral..
22a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4f 6e 6c 79 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 20 6d 6f 64 ...........\item.Only.slight.mod
22c0 69 66 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 ification.............\item.Elec
22e0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 66 6c 6f 61 74 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 65 61 20 6f 66 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 trons.float.in.a.sea.of.positive
2300 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 .charge.........\begin{itemize}.
2320 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 27 73 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 63 61 75 73 65 64 ........Thomson's.results.caused
2340 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 61 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 75 6d 20 70 75 64 64 69 6e .the.proposal.of.the.plum.puddin
2360 67 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 64 20 61 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 73 g.model,.which.defined.a.model.s
2380 75 63 68 20 74 68 61 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b uch.that.........\subsubsection{
23a0 50 6c 75 6d 20 50 75 64 64 69 6e 67 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 63 Plum.Pudding.Model}.........Elec
23c0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 63 6c 65 61 72 6c 79 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 trons.were.clearly.smaller.than.
23e0 61 74 6f 6d 73 2c 20 73 6f 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 atoms,.so.Thomson.concluded.that
2400 20 74 68 65 79 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 61 6e .they.must.be.part.of.an.atom.an
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2440 20 28 64 69 73 70 72 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 73 69 62 69 .(disproving.Dalton's.indivisibi
2460 6c 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 69 6f 6e 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 lity.of.atoms.assertion)........
2480 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 73 74 72 65 61 6d 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 ..........A.stream.of.particles.
24a0 28 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 29 20 77 61 73 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 (electrons).was.emitted.through.
24c0 61 20 74 75 62 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 69 74 20 72 65 61 63 68 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 a.tube,.and.when.it.reached.the.
24e0 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 6e 64 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 74 6f 77 61 72 64 73 20 61 20 70 6f other.end.deflected.towards.a.po
2500 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 sitive.electric.charge..........
2520 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4a 2e 4a 2e 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 .........J.J..Thomson.discovered
2540 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 6c 61 74 65 20 31 38 30 30 73 20 77 2f 20 63 61 74 68 6f .electron.in.late.1800s.w/.catho
2560 64 65 20 72 61 79 20 74 75 62 65 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 28 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f de.ray.tube.experiments.(electro
2580 6e 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 72 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 n.emitters).........\subsubsecti
25a0 6f 6e 7b 44 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 on{Discovery.of.the.Electron}...
25c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 4e 6f 74 65 3a 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f ......Note:.Dalton's.Atomic.Theo
25e0 72 79 20 77 61 73 20 69 6e 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6e 65 61 72 6c 79 20 65 76 ry.was.incomplete.like.nearly.ev
2600 65 72 79 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 ery.other.theory..........\end{i
2620 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 20 63 68 65 6d temize}.............\item.A.chem
2640 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 20 72 65 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 ical.reaction.is.a.rearrangement
2660 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 6e 65 77 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 61 74 69 .of.the.atoms.into.new.combinati
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26c0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 .............\item.Compounds.are
26e0 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 77 6f 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 .composed.of.atoms.of.two.or.mor
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2760 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c e.compound..............\item.El
2780 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 63 61 6c ements.are.composed.of.identical
27a0 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 75 6e 69 71 75 .atoms.and.these.atoms.are.uniqu
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27e0 65 72 65 6e 74 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 2e 00 20 20 erent.elements.are.different....
2800 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 ..........\item.Atoms.are.indivi
2820 73 69 62 6c 65 3b 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 63 6f sible;.atoms.are.the.smallest.co
2840 6d 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 mponents.of.matter.and.cannot.be
2860 20 62 72 6f 6b 65 6e 20 64 6f 77 6e 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 .broken.down..........\begin{ite
2880 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 mize}.........Dalton's.Atomic.Th
28a0 65 6f 72 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 69 6e 20 6f 78 69 64 65 eory:..................Tin.oxide
28c0 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 74 79 70 65 73 2c 20 61 .forms.in.two.different.types,.a
28e0 6e 64 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 6f 62 73 65 72 76 65 64 20 74 68 69 73 20 62 79 20 74 65 73 74 69 nd.Dalton.observed.this.by.testi
2900 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 77 68 69 ng.the.amount.of.oxygen.with.whi
2920 63 68 20 74 69 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ch.tin.reacts...................
2940 50 72 6f 75 73 74 20 73 70 6c 69 74 20 74 69 6e 20 6f 78 69 64 65 73 20 74 6f 20 64 65 74 65 72 Proust.split.tin.oxides.to.deter
2960 6d 69 6e 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 65 64 mine.ratios,.but.Dalton.combined
2980 20 74 69 6e 20 2b 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 .tin.+.oxygen.to.measure........
29a0 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f ...........Law.of.definite.propo
29c0 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 65 64 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 74 rtions.allowed.Dalton.to.form.at
29e0 6f 6d 69 63 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 28 77 68 69 63 68 20 73 75 70 70 6f 72 74 65 64 20 6c 61 77 omic.theory.(which.supported.law
2a00 20 6f 66 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 .of.definite.proportions).......
2a20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 72 6f 75 73 74 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 74 68 61 ...........Proust.discovered.tha
2a40 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 22 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 64 t.compounds.follow.the."law.of.d
2a60 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 3a 22 20 77 68 6f 6c 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 efinite.proportions:".whole.numb
2a80 65 72 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 73 73 65 73 20 6f ers.define.the.ratio.of.masses.o
2aa0 66 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 00 20 f.elements.found.in.a.compound..
2ac0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 31 38 30 30 73 2c 20 4a 6f 68 6e 20 44 ................In.1800s,.John.D
2ae0 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 5c 26 20 4a 6f 73 65 70 68 20 50 72 6f 75 73 74 20 75 73 65 64 20 73 63 69 65 alton.\&.Joseph.Proust.used.scie
2b00 6e 74 69 66 69 63 20 6d 65 74 68 6f 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 73 65 61 72 63 68 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 ntific.method.to.research.the.at
2b20 6f 6d 2c 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 om,.developing.the.first.atomic.
2b40 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 28 61 6e 20 65 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 theory.(an.explanation.of.the.st
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2ba0 6c 6c 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 44 ll.particles)..................D
2bc0 65 6d 6f 63 72 69 74 75 73 20 28 47 72 65 65 6b 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 70 68 69 6c 6f 73 6f emocritus.(Greek.natural.philoso
2be0 70 68 65 72 29 20 77 61 73 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 74 6f 20 68 79 70 6f 74 68 65 73 69 7a 65 20 74 pher).was.first.to.hypothesize.t
2c00 68 65 20 65 78 69 73 74 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 2d 2d 20 6e 6f 6e 2d 73 he.existence.of.an.atom.--.non-s
2c20 63 69 65 6e 74 69 66 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 cientifically..........\subsubse
2c40 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 20 20 ction{Dalton's.Atomic.Theory}...
2c60 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 48 69 73 74 6f 72 69 63 61 6c 20 44 65 76 ..\subsection{The.Historical.Dev
2c80 65 6c 6f 70 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 5c 73 65 63 74 elopment.of.Atomic.Theory}.\sect
2ca0 69 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 50 65 72 ion{Atomic.Structure.and.the.Per
2cc0 69 6f 64 69 63 20 54 61 62 6c 65 7d 00 00 5c 6e 65 77 70 61 67 65 00 7d 00 5c 74 61 62 6c 65 6f iodic.Table}..\newpage.}.\tableo
2ce0 66 63 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 73 00 7b 5c 68 79 70 65 72 73 65 74 75 70 7b 68 69 64 65 6c 69 6e 6b 73 fcontents.{\hypersetup{hidelinks
2d00 7d 00 5c 6d 61 6b 65 74 69 74 6c 65 00 00 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 64 6f 63 75 6d 65 6e 74 7d 00 00 }.\maketitle..\begin{document}..
2d20 00 5c 72 65 6e 65 77 63 6f 6d 6d 61 6e 64 7b 5c 74 68 65 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e .\renewcommand{\thesubsubsection
2d40 7d 7b 54 6f 70 69 63 20 5c 61 72 61 62 69 63 7b 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 2e 5c 61 72 61 }{Topic.\arabic{subsection}.\ara
2d60 62 69 63 7b 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 3a 7d 00 5c 72 65 6e 65 77 63 6f 6d 6d 61 bic{subsubsection}:}.\renewcomma
2d80 6e 64 7b 5c 74 68 65 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 7b 4c 65 73 73 6f 6e 20 5c 61 72 61 62 69 nd{\thesubsection}{Lesson.\arabi
2da0 63 7b 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 3a 7d 00 5c 72 65 6e 65 77 63 6f 6d 6d 61 6e 64 7b 5c 74 c{subsection}:}.\renewcommand{\t
2dc0 68 65 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 7b 55 6e 69 74 20 5c 52 6f 6d 61 6e 7b 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 3a hesection}{Unit.\Roman{section}:
2de0 7d 00 5c 64 61 74 65 7b 5c 74 6f 64 61 79 7d 00 5c 61 75 74 68 6f 72 7b 48 6f 6c 64 65 6e 20 52 }.\date{\today}.\author{Holden.R
2e00 6f 68 72 65 72 7d 00 5c 74 69 74 6c 65 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 73 74 72 79 7d 00 00 7d 7d 00 20 20 5c ohrer}.\title{Chemistry}..}}...\
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30c0 72 61 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 76 73 20 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 46 6f ramolecular.vs.Intermolecular.Fo
30e0 72 63 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 rces}.....\subsection{Intermolec
3100 75 6c 61 72 20 46 6f 72 63 65 73 7d 00 09 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 62 72 61 ular.Forces}..Alloys.include.bra
3120 73 73 20 28 63 6f 70 70 65 72 20 5c 26 20 7a 69 6e 63 29 2c 20 72 6f 73 65 20 67 6f 6c 64 20 28 ss.(copper.\&.zinc),.rose.gold.(
3140 67 6f 6c 64 20 5c 26 20 63 6f 70 70 65 72 29 2c 20 62 72 6f 6e 7a 65 20 28 63 6f 70 70 65 72 20 gold.\&.copper),.bronze.(copper.
3160 5c 26 20 74 69 6e 20 6f 72 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 65 65 6c 20 28 \&.tin.or.aluminum),.and.steel.(
3180 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 69 72 6f 6e 2c 20 63 68 72 6f 6d 69 75 6d 2c 20 5c 26 20 6e 69 63 6b 65 6c mostly.iron,.chromium,.\&.nickel
31a0 29 2e 00 00 09 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 )....Alloys.are.a.type.of.mixtur
31c0 65 2e 20 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 65 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 62 79 20 6d e..Alloys.are.mixtures.made.by.m
31e0 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 74 elting.together.metals.and.are.t
3200 68 75 73 20 68 6f 6d 6f 67 65 6e 6f 75 73 2e 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 6c hus.homogenous..Properties.of.al
3220 6c 6f 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 loys.are.different.from.the.prop
3240 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2c 20 erties.of.its.composite.metals,.
3260 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 77 68 61 74 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 74 68 65 6d 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 2e which.is.what.makes.them.useful.
3280 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 62 61 ..\subsubsection{Alloys}..The.ba
32a0 6e 64 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 6c 75 73 74 72 nd.theory.explains.metals'.lustr
32c0 6f 75 73 6e 65 73 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6d 6f ousness.because.the.electrons.mo
32e0 76 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 62 61 6e 64 73 20 28 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c ve.between.bands.(shared.orbital
3300 73 29 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2c s).when.the.metal.absorbs.light,
3320 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 73 75 63 63 65 73 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 64 2d .which.is.successively.released-
3340 2d 2d 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 6f 73 63 69 6c --causing.the.electrons.to.oscil
3360 6c 61 74 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 62 61 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 late.between.bands..These.proper
3380 74 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 65 78 61 63 65 72 62 61 74 65 64 20 62 ties.are.typically.exacerbated.b
33a0 79 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 6f 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 y.large.numbers.of.valence.elect
33c0 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 2c 20 61 73 20 rons.and.large.atomic.radii,.as.
33e0 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 2e 00 09 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 6d mentioned.earlier...Because.of.m
3400 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 etals'.delocalized.electrons,.th
3420 65 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 ey.have.certain.useful.propertie
3440 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 68 69 67 68 20 68 65 61 74 2f 65 6c 65 63 74 s..These.include.high.heat/elect
3460 72 69 63 61 6c 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 64 rical.conductivity.because.the.d
3480 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 65 61 elocalized.electrons.can.flow.ea
34a0 73 69 6c 79 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 sily.through.the.substance,.and.
34c0 74 68 6f 73 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 63 61 72 72 79 20 74 those.same.electrons.can.carry.t
34e0 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 65 20 68 69 67 68 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f hermal.energy..The.high.number.o
3500 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 61 74 f.valence.electrons.and.large.at
3520 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 69 62 75 74 65 20 74 6f 20 74 68 omic.radii.also.contribute.to.th
3540 65 20 65 61 73 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 e.ease.of.movement.of.the.deloca
3560 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 69 72 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 75 6e 69 lized.electrons..Their.other.uni
3580 71 75 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 69 6c 69 74 79 2c 20 que.properties.of.malleability,.
35a0 64 75 63 74 69 6c 69 74 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 75 73 74 65 72 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 ductility,.and.luster.can.also.b
35c0 65 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 63 68 e.explained.with.their.atomic.ch
35e0 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 73 2e 20 54 68 65 69 72 20 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 aracteristics..Their.delocalized
3600 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 22 66 6c 65 78 69 62 6c 65 22 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 .electrons.make."flexible".bonds
3620 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 75 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 .and.thus.allow.the.metal.to.be.
3640 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 64 75 63 74 69 6c 65 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 malleable.and.ductile.instead.of
3660 20 62 72 69 74 74 6c 65 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 73 75 6c 74 .brittle...\subsubsection{Result
3680 61 6e 74 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 7d 00 09 49 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 6c 69 63 20 62 6f 6e ant.Properties}..In.metallic.bon
36a0 64 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 72 65 20 6f 76 65 72 6c 61 ds,.the.orbitals.that.are.overla
36c0 70 70 69 6e 67 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 22 6d pping.share.electrons,.making."m
36e0 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 22 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 olecular.orbitals".which.determi
3700 6e 65 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 62 61 62 6c 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 ne.the.probable.position.of.any.
3720 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 given.electron..The.large.number
3740 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 6d 65 61 .of.atoms.in.a.metal.crystal.mea
3760 6e 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 ns.that.there.is.a.large.number.
3780 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d of.molecular.orbitals.in.the.sam
37a0 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e e.crystal..These.orbitals.combin
37c0 65 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 22 62 61 6e 64 73 2c 22 20 61 73 20 70 72 65 64 69 63 74 65 64 20 e.to.form."bands,".as.predicted.
37e0 62 79 20 62 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 2d 2d 2d 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 by.band.theory---another.theory.
3800 6f 66 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 6c 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 68 61 73 20 6d 6f of.metallic.bonding.which.has.mo
3820 72 65 20 70 72 65 64 69 63 74 69 76 65 20 70 6f 77 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 re.predictive.power.than.the.ele
3840 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 73 65 61 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 65 63 ctron.sea...\subsubsection{Molec
3860 75 6c 61 72 20 4f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 73 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 ular.Orbitals}..These.properties
3880 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 22 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 .create.metals'."delocalized.ele
38a0 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 22 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 73 73 6f ctrons,".where.they.are.not.asso
38c0 63 69 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 6e 20 61 ciated.with.a.specific.atom.in.a
38e0 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 62 75 74 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 73 68 61 72 65 .metal.crystal.but.instead.share
3900 64 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 20 61 6e 64 20 72 6f 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 72 d.between.nuclei.and.roaming.thr
3920 6f 75 67 68 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 2e 20 54 68 65 oughout.the.crystal.lattice..The
3940 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 73 74 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 73 20 .simplest.model.which.considers.
3960 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 22 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 73 65 these.is.called.the."electron.se
3980 61 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 22 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 73 a.model,".where.electrons.are.as
39a0 73 75 6d 65 64 20 74 6f 20 65 61 73 69 6c 79 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6e 75 63 sumed.to.easily.flow.between.nuc
39c0 6c 65 69 20 61 6e 64 20 73 65 72 76 65 20 61 73 20 22 67 6c 75 65 22 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 lei.and.serve.as."glue".for.the.
39e0 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 metal.atoms..This.model.describe
3a00 73 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 00 09 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 s.metal.bonding...\end{itemize}.
3a20 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 6f 77 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 .....\item.Low.ionization.energy
3a40 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 6f 77 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 ......\item.Low.electronegativit
3a60 79 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 61 72 67 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 00 09 5c 62 65 67 69 6e y......\item.Large.atoms..\begin
3a80 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 09 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 {itemize}..Metals.have.propertie
3aa0 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 s.which.cause.unique.characteris
3ac0 74 69 63 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 tics:.........\subsubsection{The
3ae0 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 53 65 61 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d .Electron.Sea}.....\subsection{M
3b00 65 74 61 6c 6c 69 63 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 7d 00 09 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f etallic.Bonding}..Covalent.compo
3b20 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 73 74 69 6e 67 75 69 73 68 61 62 6c 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 69 6f unds.are.distinguishable.from.io
3b40 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 62 79 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 nic.compounds.by.several.propert
3b60 69 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 ies..These.are.composed.of.molec
3b80 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 65 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f ules,.do.not.ionize.in.a.solutio
3ba0 6e 2c 20 70 6f 6f 72 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 n,.poorly.conduct.electrical.cha
3bc0 72 67 65 2c 20 70 6f 6f 72 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 20 68 65 61 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 66 rge,.poorly.conduct.heat,.and.of
3be0 74 65 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 6c 6f 77 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 ten.have.low.melting.and.boiling
3c00 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 .points...\subsubsection{Propert
3c20 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 7d 00 09 52 65 73 6f ies.of.Covalent.Compounds}..Reso
3c40 6e 61 6e 63 65 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 78 63 nance.Structures.are.another.exc
3c60 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2e 20 57 68 65 6e eption.to.Lewis.Structures..When
3c80 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 .multiple.Lewis.Structures.could
3ca0 20 62 65 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 75 63 74 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 .be.possibly.constructed.from.a.
3cc0 67 69 76 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 given.molecular.formula.(such.as
3ce0 20 24 53 4f 5f 32 24 29 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6e 6f 74 65 64 20 62 .$SO_2$),.these.are.both.noted.b
3d00 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 61 6c 20 65 76 69 64 65 6e 63 65 20 73 75 67 ecause.experimental.evidence.sug
3d20 67 65 73 74 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 6c 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 gests.the.real.structure.of.mole
3d40 63 75 6c 65 73 20 69 73 20 61 20 62 6c 65 6e 64 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 6f 6e 61 6e 63 cules.is.a.blend.of.the.resonanc
3d60 65 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 e.structures...\subsubsection{Re
3d80 73 6f 6e 61 6e 63 65 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 7d 00 09 55 6e 6c 69 6b 65 20 73 69 6e 67 sonance.Structures}..Unlike.sing
3da0 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 le.bonds,.double.and.triple.bond
3dc0 73 20 75 73 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 73 69 67 6d 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 s.use.more.than.sigma.bonds..The
3de0 73 65 20 75 73 65 20 70 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 76 65 72 6c 61 70 20 6f 66 20 se.use.pi.bonds,.the.overlap.of.
3e00 70 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 70 61 72 61 6c 6c 65 6c p.orbitals..These.occur.parallel
3e20 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 63 75 72 72 65 6e 74 20 73 69 67 6d 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 2c 20 77 69 74 68 .to.the.current.sigma.bond,.with
3e40 20 6f 6e 65 20 70 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 61 6e .one.pi.bond.in.a.double.bond.an
3e60 64 20 74 77 6f 20 70 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e d.two.pi.bonds.in.a.triple.bond.
3e80 00 00 09 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 ...Another.exception.to.previous
3ea0 6c 79 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 ly.mentioned.Lewis.Structure.is.
3ec0 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 20 53 6f 6d 65 74 69 6d 65 73 2c 20 74 6f 20 66 69 double.bonding..Sometimes,.to.fi
3ee0 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 2c 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 ll.atoms'.octets,.more.than.two.
3f00 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 2e 20 24 4f 5f 32 24 20 electrons.must.be.shared..$O_2$.
3f20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 6c 65 61 72 65 73 74 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 20 is.the.clearest.example.of.this.
3f40 2d 2d 20 77 69 74 68 20 36 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 73 68 61 --.with.6.valence.electrons,.sha
3f60 72 69 6e 67 20 74 77 6f 20 66 69 6c 6c 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 74 ring.two.fills.the.octets.of.bot
3f80 68 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 73 69 h..These.are.more.stable.than.si
3fa0 6e 67 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 24 4e 5f 32 24 20 68 61 73 20 74 6f 20 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 ngle.bonds..$N_2$.has.to.use.the
3fc0 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 20 65 78 74 65 6e 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 74 72 69 70 .logical.extension.of.this,.trip
3fe0 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 74 6f 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 2e 00 le.bonds,.to.fill.their.octets..
4000 61 64 00 00 49 00 00 00 dd 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 1e 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 cb 0d 00 00 9a 0d 00 00 ad..I...........................
4020 96 0c 00 00 8d 0c 00 00 5d 0c 00 00 45 0c 00 00 0b 0c 00 00 cb 0b 00 00 b5 0b 00 00 ac 0b 00 00 ........]...E...................
4040 01 0b 00 00 d7 0a 00 00 ad 0a 00 00 38 0a 00 00 2f 0a 00 00 91 09 00 00 88 09 00 00 35 08 00 00 ............8.../...........5...
4060 f7 07 00 00 fd 05 00 00 cd 05 00 00 85 05 00 00 7c 05 00 00 e8 04 00 00 df 04 00 00 44 04 00 00 ................|...........D...
4080 3b 04 00 00 8a 02 00 00 81 02 00 00 dd 00 00 00 dc 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ;...............................
40a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
40c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 ................................
40e0 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 61 6e 65 74 61 72 79 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 65 61 63 .....In.the.planetary.model,.eac
4100 68 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 65 h.of.the.orbits.has.a.specific.e
4120 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 20 68 nergy.amount.and.higher.orbits.h
4140 61 76 65 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 2e 20 41 6c 73 6f 2c 20 61 63 63 6f 72 ave.higher.energies..Also,.accor
4160 64 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 20 74 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 ding.to.this.model,.electrons.ca
4180 6e 27 74 20 68 61 76 65 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6e 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 28 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 n't.have.internal.energy.(comple
41a0 74 65 6c 79 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 62 79 20 69 74 73 20 6f 72 62 69 74 29 2e 20 45 tely.determined.by.its.orbit)..E
41c0 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6a 75 6d 70 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 lectrons.jump.between.energy.lev
41e0 65 6c 73 20 62 79 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 65 6d 69 74 74 69 6e 67 20 6c 69 67 els.by.absorbing.or.emitting.lig
4200 68 74 2c 20 62 75 74 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 64 69 73 63 ht,.but.because.there.are.a.disc
4220 72 65 74 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 71 75 rete.number.of.orbits,.the.frequ
4240 65 6e 63 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 encies.of.the.light.are.discrete
4260 20 28 74 68 75 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 29 2e .(thus.defining.emission.lines).
4280 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 42 75 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 66 20 6f ..................Building.off.o
42a0 66 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 4e 69 65 6c 73 20 42 6f 68 72 20 28 31 39 31 35 29 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 f.this,.Niels.Bohr.(1915).define
42c0 64 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 28 74 68 65 20 d.a.new.model.for.the.atom.(the.
42e0 70 6c 61 6e 65 74 61 72 79 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 29 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 planetary.model).with.electrons.
4300 6f 72 62 69 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 69 6e 20 66 69 78 65 64 2c 20 64 orbiting.the.nucleus.in.fixed,.d
4320 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2d 6c 65 76 65 6c 20 70 61 74 68 73 20 28 69 2e 65 2e iscrete.energy-level.paths.(i.e.
4340 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 65 78 69 73 74 20 69 6e 20 73 70 65 .electrons.can.only.exist.in.spe
4360 63 69 66 69 63 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 6e 6f 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6c 6f 63 cific.orbits.and.in.no.other.loc
4380 61 74 69 6f 6e 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 77 61 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 64 69 66 69 65 ation)..This.model.was.a.modifie
43a0 64 20 76 65 72 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 52 75 74 68 65 72 66 6f 72 64 27 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 d.version.of.Rutherford's.model.
43c0 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 28 61 20 63 65 6e 74 72 61 6c 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 77 of.the.atom.(a.central.nucleus.w
43e0 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 61 6e 79 20 ith.electrons.positioned.in.any.
4400 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 2d 2d 20 6e position.around.the.nucleus.--.n
4420 6f 74 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 ot.discrete.energy.levels)......
4440 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 75 72 70 72 69 73 69 6e 67 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 20 73 70 ............Surprisingly,.the.sp
4460 65 63 74 72 61 20 77 65 72 65 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 63 ectra.were.discrete.instead.of.c
4480 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 6f 75 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 65 64 20 52 79 64 62 65 72 67 20 ontinuous..This.allowed.Rydberg.
44a0 74 6f 20 65 73 74 61 62 6c 69 73 68 20 65 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6e 67 20 to.establish.equations.relating.
44c0 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 79 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 00 20 frequency.and.energy.of.light...
44e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 ................An.emission.spec
4500 74 72 75 6d 20 69 73 20 61 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 trum.is.a.visible.light.in.which
4520 20 77 61 76 65 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 73 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 62 79 .wavelengths.of.light.emitted.by
4540 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 77 68 69 6c 65 20 68 65 61 74 65 64 20 73 68 6f 77 20 75 .a.substance.while.heated.show.u
4560 70 20 61 73 20 62 72 69 67 68 74 2c 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 p.as.bright,.colored.lines......
4580 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4a 6f 68 61 6e 6e 65 73 20 52 79 64 62 65 72 67 20 73 74 .............Johannes.Rydberg.st
45a0 75 64 69 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 20 6f 66 20 68 65 udied.the.emission.spectra.of.he
45c0 61 74 65 64 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 ated.metals..........\subsubsect
45e0 69 6f 6e 7b 44 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 4c 69 6e 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 ion{Discrete.Emission.Lines}....
4600 20 20 20 20 20 45 69 6e 73 74 65 69 6e 20 6e 6f 74 69 63 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 .....Einstein.noticed.that.elect
4620 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6d 65 20 6f 66 66 20 69 6e 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 7a 65 64 20 70 61 63 6b 65 rons.came.off.in.quantized.packe
4640 74 73 20 28 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 29 2e 20 42 6f 72 72 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 4d 61 78 20 50 6c 61 6e ts.(quantum)..Borrowing.Max.Plan
4660 63 6b 27 73 20 69 64 65 61 20 74 68 61 74 20 76 69 62 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c ck's.idea.that.vibrating.molecul
4680 65 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 68 61 64 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 74 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 76 61 es.only.had.energy.at.certain.va
46a0 6c 75 65 73 2c 20 68 65 20 74 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 lues,.he.treated.light.particles
46c0 20 61 73 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 67 69 76 65 .as.quantum.where.energy.is.give
46e0 6e 20 62 79 20 24 68 5c 6e 75 24 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 24 68 24 20 69 73 20 50 6c 61 6e 63 6b 27 n.by.$h\nu$.where.$h$.is.Planck'
4700 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 24 5c 6e 75 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 71 s.constant.and.$\nu$.is.the.freq
4720 75 65 6e 63 79 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 65 64 20 74 uency.of.light..This.explained.t
4740 68 65 20 63 6f 72 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 he.correlation.of.light.frequenc
4760 79 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 71 y.with.electron.energy.but.not.q
4780 75 61 6e 74 69 74 79 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 74 79 27 73 20 63 6f uantity.and.light.intensity's.co
47a0 72 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 79 rrelation.with.electron.quantity
47c0 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 77 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 .but.not.energy..This.was.the.st
47e0 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c art.of.Quantum.Theory..........\
4800 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 69 6e 73 74 65 69 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 50 subsubsection{Einstein.and.the.P
4820 68 6f 74 6f 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 45 66 66 65 63 74 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 hotoelectric.Effect}.........In.
4840 31 38 38 37 2c 20 48 65 72 74 7a 20 73 68 6f 77 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 73 68 1887,.Hertz.showed.that.light.sh
4860 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 73 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e ining.on.metal.produces.emission
4880 73 20 28 70 68 6f 74 6f 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 29 20 62 79 20 6b 6e 6f 63 s.(photoelectric.effect).by.knoc
48a0 6b 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 king.electrons.off.of.the.metal.
48c0 2d 2d 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 64 69 63 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 77 61 76 65 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 --.contradicting.the.wave.theory
48e0 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 73 68 6f 77 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 .of.light..Thomson.showed.that.t
4900 68 6f 73 65 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 hose.emitted.particles.are.elect
4920 72 6f 6e 73 2e 20 48 65 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 rons..He.also.discovered.that.th
4940 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 6e e.energy.of.electrons.depends.on
4960 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 69 6e 74 .frequency.of.the.light,.not.int
4980 65 6e 73 69 74 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 6f 6d 61 73 20 ensity...................Thomas.
49a0 59 6f 75 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 65 61 72 6c 79 20 31 38 30 30 73 2c 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 Young.in.the.early.1800s,.used.t
49c0 68 65 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 2d 73 6c 69 74 20 64 69 66 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 78 70 65 72 he.double-slit.diffraction.exper
49e0 69 6d 65 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 64 65 6d 6f 6e 73 74 72 61 74 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 62 65 6e 64 69 iment.to.demonstrate.light.bendi
4a00 6e 67 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 63 6f 72 6e 65 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 74 65 72 66 65 72 69 6e ng.around.corners.and.interferin
4a20 67 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 61 20 77 61 76 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 g.like.a.wave...................
4a40 4e 65 77 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 31 37 30 34 2c 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 63 Newton,.in.1704,.developed.the.c
4a60 6f 72 70 75 73 63 75 6c 61 72 20 28 66 72 6f 6d 20 4c 61 74 69 6e 20 66 6f 72 20 22 70 75 6e 79 orpuscular.(from.Latin.for."puny
4a80 20 62 6f 64 79 22 29 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2c 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 .body").theory.of.light,.light.a
4aa0 73 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 s.particles..........\subsubsect
4ac0 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 6f 72 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 4c 69 67 68 74 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 ion{Theories.of.Light}.....\subs
4ae0 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 4d 6f 64 65 72 6e 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d ection{The.Modern.Atomic.Theory}
4b00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 48 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 6e 20 61 74 .........He.concluded.that.an.at
4b20 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 65 6d 70 74 79 20 73 70 61 63 65 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 om.is.mostly.empty.space,.with.a
4b40 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 2c 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 2c 20 63 65 6e 74 .small,.positively.charged,.cent
4b60 72 61 6c 20 72 65 67 69 6f 6e 20 28 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 29 2c 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 ral.region.(the.nucleus),.in.whi
4b80 63 68 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 27 73 20 6d 61 73 73 20 69 73 20 63 6f ch.most.of.the.atom's.mass.is.co
4ba0 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 65 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e ncentrated...................\en
4bc0 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 20 66 d{itemize}.............\item.A.f
4be0 65 77 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 61 74 20 6c 61 ew.particles.are.deflected.at.la
4c00 72 67 65 20 61 6e 67 6c 65 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4d 6f 73 rge.angles.............\item.Mos
4c20 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 20 73 74 72 61 69 67 68 74 20 74 68 72 6f t.particles.passed.straight.thro
4c40 75 67 68 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 ugh..........\begin{itemize}....
4c60 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 6f 66 20 52 75 74 68 65 72 66 6f 72 64 27 73 .....The.results.of.Rutherford's
4c80 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e .experiment:..................In
4ca0 20 61 20 74 65 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 75 6d 20 70 75 64 64 69 6e 67 20 6d 6f 64 65 .a.test.of.the.plum.pudding.mode
4cc0 6c 20 62 79 20 45 72 6e 65 73 74 20 52 75 74 68 65 72 66 6f 72 64 2c 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 l.by.Ernest.Rutherford,.positive
4ce0 6c 79 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 73 68 6f 6f 74 20 6f 75 74 20 6f ly.charged.particles.shoot.out.o
4d00 66 20 61 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 67 75 6e 20 74 6f 77 61 72 64 73 20 61 20 74 68 69 6e 20 f.a.particle.gun.towards.a.thin.
4d20 73 68 65 65 74 20 6f 66 20 67 6f 6c 64 20 66 6f 69 6c 2e 20 54 68 65 6e 2c 20 72 65 66 6c 65 63 sheet.of.gold.foil..Then,.reflec
4d40 74 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 6f 72 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 70 61 73 73 69 ted.particles.or.particles.passi
4d60 6e 67 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 69 6c 20 61 72 65 20 64 65 74 65 63 74 65 64 ng.through.the.foil.are.detected
4d80 20 62 79 20 61 20 73 75 72 72 6f 75 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 73 63 72 65 65 6e 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 .by.a.surrounding.screen........
4da0 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 ..\subsubsection{Discovery.of.th
4dc0 65 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 52 6f 62 65 72 74 20 4d 69 6c 6c 69 6b e.Nucleus}.........Robert.Millik
4de0 61 6e 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 65 64 20 61 6e 20 6f 69 6c 20 64 72 6f 70 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d an.conducted.an.oil.drop.experim
4e00 65 6e 74 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 63 68 61 72 5c 2d 67 65 ent.where.droplets.were.char\-ge
4e20 64 20 77 2f 20 73 70 72 61 79 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 20 d.w/.spray.and.a.single.droplet.
4e40 77 61 73 20 68 65 6c 64 20 69 6e 20 6d 69 64 2d 61 69 72 2e 20 41 6c 6c 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 74 68 was.held.in.mid-air..Allowing.th
4e60 65 20 6f 69 6c 20 74 6f 20 64 72 6f 70 2c 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 63 65 20 6f 66 20 67 72 61 76 e.oil.to.drop,.the.force.of.grav
4e80 69 74 79 20 77 61 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 63 65 6c 65 72 61 ity.was.compared.to.the.accelera
4ea0 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 tion.of.the.droplet.and.the.elec
4ec0 74 72 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 74 20 77 61 73 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 tric.field,.and.it.was.determine
4ee0 64 20 28 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f d.(because.of.the.quantization.o
4f00 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f 69 6c 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 73 20 74 6f f.charges.on.the.oil.droplets.to
4f20 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 .multiples.of.the.charge.of.an.e
4f40 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 29 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 24 31 2e lectron).that.electrons.have.$1.
4f60 36 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 31 39 7d 20 43 24 20 6f 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 20 41 70 70 6c 79 69 6e 6*10^{-19}.C$.of.charge..Applyin
4f80 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 74 6f 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 27 73 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 73 g.this.to.Thomson's.ratio.of.mas
4fa0 73 2d 74 6f 2d 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 24 5c 66 s-to-charge.for.an.electron,.$\f
4fc0 72 61 63 7b 31 67 7d 7b 31 2e 37 36 2a 31 30 5e 38 20 43 7d 24 2c 20 61 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 rac{1g}{1.76*10^8.C}$,.a.mass.of
4fe0 20 24 39 2e 30 39 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 38 7d 67 24 20 77 61 73 20 6f 62 74 61 69 6e 65 64 2e 00 .$9.09*10^{-28}g$.was.obtained..
5000 61 64 00 00 9f 00 00 00 6b 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 2c 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ae 0f 00 00 58 0f 00 00 ad......k.......,...........X...
5020 40 0f 00 00 c0 0e 00 00 68 0e 00 00 f3 0d 00 00 dd 0d 00 00 d4 0d 00 00 73 0c 00 00 53 0c 00 00 @.......h...............s...S...
5040 06 0c 00 00 d2 0a 00 00 c9 0a 00 00 39 0a 00 00 01 0a 00 00 60 09 00 00 57 09 00 00 f9 07 00 00 ............9.......`...W.......
5060 d4 07 00 00 58 07 00 00 40 07 00 00 fd 06 00 00 ca 06 00 00 9d 06 00 00 4c 06 00 00 1b 06 00 00 ....X...@...............L.......
5080 05 06 00 00 da 05 00 00 ac 05 00 00 93 04 00 00 8a 04 00 00 61 04 00 00 49 04 00 00 06 04 00 00 ....................a...I.......
50a0 c3 03 00 00 6a 03 00 00 54 03 00 00 4b 03 00 00 9d 02 00 00 74 02 00 00 f6 01 00 00 ed 01 00 00 ....j...T...K.......t...........
50c0 74 01 00 00 6b 01 00 00 6a 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 t...k...j.......................
50e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
5100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
5120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
5140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
5160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 41 ............................An.A
5180 4d 55 20 69 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 24 5c 66 72 MU.is.defined.to.be.exactly.$\fr
51a0 61 63 7b 31 7d 7b 31 32 7d 24 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 24 43 5f 31 ac{1}{12}$.of.the.mass.of.a.$C_1
51c0 32 24 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 24 31 2e 36 36 2$.atom,.which.is.equal.to.$1.66
51e0 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 24 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 42 65 *10^{-24}g$...................Be
5200 63 61 75 73 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 6d 61 73 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c cause.atoms'.masses.are.so.small
5220 2c 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 73 74 73 20 75 73 65 20 61 20 75 6e 69 74 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 ,.scientists.use.a.unit.called.a
5240 6e 20 22 41 4d 55 22 20 74 6f 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 20 77 65 69 67 68 74 73 20 6f 66 20 73 n."AMU".to.describe.weights.of.s
5260 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 ubatomic.particles..........\sub
5280 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 4d 61 73 73 20 55 6e 69 74 7d 00 20 20 20 subsection{Atomic.Mass.Unit}....
52a0 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 5c 23 20 6f 66 20 70 72 .....In.a.neutral.atom,.\#.of.pr
52c0 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 3d 20 5c 23 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 6e 65 75 otons.=.\#.of.electrons,.but.neu
52e0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 72 79 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 2e 20 41 6e trons.can.vary.significantly..An
5300 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 6e 79 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 74 68 y.atom.can.have.any.number.of.th
5320 65 73 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 27 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 6c 77 61 ese.particles,.but.it's.not.alwa
5340 79 73 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 ys.stable...................\end
5360 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 {itemize}.............\item.Elec
5380 74 72 6f 6e 3a 20 2d 31 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 31 2f 31 38 30 30 20 tron:.-1.charge,.mass.of.1/1800.
53a0 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 2f 6f 72 62 69 74 61 proton,.in.electron.cloud/orbita
53c0 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 3a 20 30 ls.............\item.Neutrons:.0
53e0 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 31 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 6e 75 .charge,.mass.of.1.proton,.in.nu
5400 63 6c 65 75 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 50 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 3a cleus.............\item.Protons:
5420 20 2b 31 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 31 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e .+1.charge,.mass.of.1.proton,.in
5440 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d .nucleus.........\begin{itemize}
5460 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 6f 66 20 33 20 70 .........The.atom.is.made.of.3.p
5480 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 61 74 articles:..................An.at
54a0 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 om.is.the.smallest.particle.of.a
54c0 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 70 72 6f 70 n.element.that.has.the.same.prop
54e0 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 erties.as.the.element..The.atom.
5500 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 69 76 69 64 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 70 61 72 74 73 2c 20 74 can.be.divided.into.two.parts,.t
5520 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 63 65 6e 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 6f 6c 64 he.nucleus.(the.center.that.hold
5540 73 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 s.protons.and.neutrons),.and.the
5560 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 28 72 65 67 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 75 72 72 6f 75 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 74 .orbitals.(regions.surrounding.t
5580 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 73 69 74 20 69 he.nucleus.where.electrons.sit.i
55a0 6e 20 22 63 6c 6f 75 64 73 22 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 n."clouds").........\subsubsecti
55c0 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 41 74 6f 6d 27 73 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 on{The.Atom's.Components}.....\s
55e0 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 41 ubsection{The.Structure.of.the.A
5600 74 6f 6d 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 tom}.........\end{itemize}......
5620 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 73 74 75 64 79 69 6e 67 20 73 75 72 66 61 63 65 73 20 6f .......\item.studying.surfaces.o
5640 66 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 69 64 f.materials.............\item.id
5660 65 6e 74 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 68 61 72 6d 66 75 6c 20 62 61 63 74 65 72 69 61 20 69 6e 20 66 6f entifying.harmful.bacteria.in.fo
5680 6f 64 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 76 69 72 6f 6e 6d 65 6e 74 61 6c 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 73 00 20 20 20 od.and.environmental.samples....
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56c0 63 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 69 64 65 6e cal.bonds.............\item.iden
56e0 74 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 00 20 20 20 tifying.elements.in.a.sample....
5700 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 .........\item.identifying.the.c
5720 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 61 72 73 00 omposition.of.the.sun.and.stars.
5740 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ........\begin{itemize}.........
5760 53 70 65 63 74 72 6f 73 63 6f 70 79 20 28 74 68 65 20 73 74 75 64 79 20 6f 66 20 61 62 73 6f 72 Spectroscopy.(the.study.of.absor
5780 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 62 79 20 61 ption.and.emission.of.light.by.a
57a0 74 6f 6d 73 29 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 73 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 73 20 61 toms).applies.these.principles.a
57c0 6e 64 20 6f 62 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 62 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 nd.observations.by:.........\sub
57e0 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 70 65 63 74 72 6f 73 63 6f 70 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 subsection{Spectroscopy}........
5800 20 41 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 45 4d 20 73 70 65 .Absorption.spectra.is.an.EM.spe
5820 63 74 72 75 6d 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 77 61 76 65 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 73 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 ctrum.in.which.wavelengths.of.li
5840 67 68 74 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 73 68 6f 77 20 ght.absorbed.by.an.element.show.
5860 75 70 20 61 73 20 64 61 72 6b 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 up.as.dark.lines.on.a.visible.li
5880 67 68 74 20 62 61 63 6b 67 72 6f 75 6e 64 2e 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 75 ght.background..Emission.spectru
58a0 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 2d 2d 20 62 72 69 67 68 74 6c 79 20 m.is.the.complement.--.brightly.
58c0 63 6f 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 62 6c 61 63 6b 20 62 61 63 6b 67 72 6f colored.lines.on.a.black.backgro
58e0 75 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 und..These.are.determined.to.rep
5900 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 61 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e resent.all.the.possible.emission
5920 2f 61 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 /absorption.frequencies.of.a.giv
5940 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 en.atom,.respectively...........
5960 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 66 ........Atomic.spectra.are.the.f
5980 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 74 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 74 6f requencies.of.light.at.which.ato
59a0 6d 73 27 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 22 6a 75 6d 70 22 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6f 72 62 ms'.electrons."jump".between.orb
59c0 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 20 22 61 62 73 itals..These.are.visible.in."abs
59e0 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 22 20 61 6e 64 20 22 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 22 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 2e orption".and."emission".spectra.
5a00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 .........\subsubsection{Absorpti
5a20 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 53 70 65 63 74 72 61 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 on.and.Emission.Spectra}........
5a40 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 74 68 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 7a 61 .This.also.explains.the.quantiza
5a60 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 75 6d 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 28 74 tion.of.atomic.spectrum.lines.(t
5a80 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 22 6a 75 6d here.are.a.finite.number.of."jum
5aa0 70 73 22 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6f ps".electrons.can.make.between.o
5ac0 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 rbitals)..................Electr
5ae0 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 6e 27 74 20 73 74 72 69 63 74 6c 79 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 3b 20 69 ons.aren't.strictly.in.orbits;.i
5b00 6e 73 74 65 61 64 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 72 65 73 74 20 69 6e 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 5c 65 nstead,.they.rest.in.discrete.\e
5b20 6d 70 68 7b 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 7d 2c 20 6f 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 2e mph{orbitals},.or.energy.levels.
5b40 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 28 22 65 78 63 69 74 61 .Electrons.absorb.light.("excita
5b60 74 69 6f 6e 22 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 29 20 61 6e 64 20 72 69 73 65 20 74 6f 20 68 69 tion".of.an.atom).and.rise.to.hi
5b80 67 68 65 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 6c 79 20 gher.energy.levels.and.randomly.
5ba0 66 61 6c 6c 20 74 6f 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 2c 20 65 6d 69 fall.to.lower.energy.levels,.emi
5bc0 74 74 69 6e 67 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 6d tting.light..However,.the.Bohr.m
5be0 6f 64 65 6c 20 63 61 6e 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 73 75 66 66 69 63 69 65 odel.can.represent.this.sufficie
5c00 6e 74 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 42 6f 68 ntly..........\subsubsection{Boh
5c20 72 27 73 20 45 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 r's.Explanation.of.Atomic.Emissi
5c40 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 41 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 on.and.Absorption}.....\subsecti
5c60 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 53 70 65 63 74 72 61 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 65 on{Atomic.Spectra}.........The.e
5c80 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 28 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 20 62 lectron.cloud.model.(developed.b
5ca0 79 20 53 63 68 72 6f 64 69 6e 67 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 74 68 65 72 73 29 20 20 72 65 70 6c 61 y.Schrodinger.and.others)..repla
5cc0 63 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 ced.the.Bohr.Model,.and.is.the.c
5ce0 75 72 72 65 6e 74 6c 79 20 61 63 63 65 70 74 65 64 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 urrently.accepted.model,.because
5d00 20 69 74 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 48 65 69 73 65 6e 62 65 72 67 20 55 6e .it.considered.the.Heisenberg.Un
5d20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 74 79 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 certainty.Principle..In.this.mod
5d40 65 6c 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 el,.electrons.are.considered.to.
5d60 6f 6e 6c 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 70 72 6f 62 61 62 6c 65 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 only.have.probable.locations.wit
5d80 68 69 6e 20 61 20 22 63 6c 6f 75 64 2c 22 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 73 20 73 74 hin.a."cloud,".but.the.clouds.st
5da0 69 6c 6c 20 68 61 76 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 ill.have.different.energy.levels
5dc0 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 .for.the.electrons..............
5de0 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c .....\end{itemize}.............\
5e00 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 72 item.Electrons.have.a.definite.r
5e20 61 64 69 75 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 6f 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 2c 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 64 69 63 74 69 6e adius.and.momentum,.contradictin
5e40 67 20 74 68 65 20 48 65 69 73 65 6e 62 65 72 67 20 55 6e 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 74 79 20 50 72 69 g.the.Heisenberg.Uncertainty.Pri
5e60 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 54 68 65 20 6d 6f nciple..............\item.The.mo
5e80 64 65 6c 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 66 6f 72 20 48 65 6c 69 75 6d 20 6f 72 20 61 del.doesn't.work.for.Helium.or.a
5ea0 6e 79 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 6c 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 00 ny.larger.atoms'.spectral.lines.
5ec0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 49 74 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 65 78 70 ............\item.It.doesn't.exp
5ee0 6c 61 69 6e 20 68 6f 77 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 6c 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 61 72 65 lain.how.some.spectral.lines.are
5f00 20 62 72 69 67 68 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6f 74 68 65 72 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 79 20 .brighter.than.others,.and.they.
5f20 63 61 6e 20 63 6f 6d 65 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 73 00 can.come.in.groups.of.multiples.
5f40 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ........\begin{itemize}.........
5f60 54 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 61 20 6c 6f 74 20 6f 66 The.Bohr.Model.explains.a.lot.of
5f80 20 64 61 74 61 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 .data,.but.it.still.has.a.number
5fa0 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 62 6c 65 6d 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 .of.problems:.........\subsubsec
5fc0 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 62 6c 65 6d 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 4d 6f 64 65 tion{Problems.with.the.Bohr.Mode
5fe0 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 43 6c 6f 75 64 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 7d 00 l.and.the.Electron.Cloud.Model}.
6000 61 64 00 00 c4 00 00 00 94 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 2d 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 4a 0f 00 00 41 0f 00 00 ad..............-.......J...A...
6020 c9 0e 00 00 a3 0e 00 00 3c 0e 00 00 33 0e 00 00 79 0c 00 00 5c 0c 00 00 c2 0a 00 00 a1 0a 00 00 ........<...3...y...\...........
6040 e0 09 00 00 d7 09 00 00 48 09 00 00 3f 09 00 00 28 09 00 00 11 09 00 00 f5 08 00 00 c8 08 00 00 ........H...?...(...............
6060 a8 08 00 00 93 08 00 00 8a 08 00 00 e2 07 00 00 d9 07 00 00 6f 07 00 00 66 07 00 00 2b 06 00 00 ....................o...f...+...
6080 f7 05 00 00 d1 05 00 00 9a 05 00 00 82 05 00 00 f4 04 00 00 d7 04 00 00 bb 04 00 00 2a 04 00 00 ............................*...
60a0 97 03 00 00 7d 03 00 00 67 03 00 00 5e 03 00 00 4e 02 00 00 36 02 00 00 0f 02 00 00 ec 01 00 00 ....}...g...^...N...6...........
60c0 ca 01 00 00 b4 01 00 00 94 01 00 00 93 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
60e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 ............................\sub
61a0 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 46 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 subsection{Fission}.........\end
61c0 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 50 72 6f 74 {itemize}.............\item.Prot
61e0 6f 6e 3a 20 24 5e 31 5f 31 70 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4e 65 on:.$^1_1p$.............\item.Ne
6200 75 74 72 6f 6e 3a 20 24 5e 31 5f 30 6e 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d utron:.$^1_0n$.............\item
6220 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 3a 20 24 5e 30 5f 7b 2d 31 7d 65 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 .Electron:.$^0_{-1}e$.........\b
6240 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 6e 75 63 egin{itemize}.........In.all.nuc
6260 6c 65 61 72 20 28 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 63 61 79 lear.(fission,.fusion,.and.decay
6280 29 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 ).reactions,.the.total.mass.and.
62a0 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 29 20 73 74 total.atomic.number.(protons).st
62c0 61 79 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6c 67 ay.the.same..This.allows.for.alg
62e0 65 62 72 61 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 ebraic.completion.of.any.nuclear
6300 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 .reaction..Note.that.this.includ
6320 65 73 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 es.subatomic.particles,.with.the
6340 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 3a 00 20 20 .respective.nuclear.formulae:...
6360 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 ...............\end{itemize}....
6380 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .........\end{itemize}..........
63a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 42 65 74 61 2d 6d 69 6e 75 73 20 64 65 63 61 79 3a 20 41 .......\item.Beta-minus.decay:.A
63c0 20 70 61 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 .parent.nucleus.neutron.becomes.
63e0 61 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 65 6d 69 74 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 a.proton,.emitting.an.electron..
6400 4d 61 73 73 20 73 74 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 2b 31 20 61 74 6f 6d Mass.stays.the.same,.and.+1.atom
6420 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 ic.number.................\item.
6440 42 65 74 61 2d 70 6c 75 73 20 64 65 63 61 79 3a 20 41 20 70 61 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 Beta-plus.decay:.A.parent.nucleu
6460 73 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 65 6d 69 74 s.proton.becomes.a.neutron,.emit
6480 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 70 6f 73 69 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 4d 61 73 73 20 73 74 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 ting.a.positron..Mass.stays.the.
64a0 73 61 6d 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 2d 31 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 same,.and.-1.atomic.number......
64c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .......\begin{itemize}..........
64e0 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 42 65 74 61 20 64 65 63 61 79 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ...\item.Beta.decay.............
6500 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 6c 70 68 61 20 44 65 63 61 79 3a 20 41 20 70 61 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c \item.Alpha.Decay:.A.parent.nucl
6520 65 75 73 20 65 6d 69 74 73 20 61 6e 20 48 65 34 20 28 61 6c 70 68 61 29 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c eus.emits.an.He4.(alpha).particl
6540 65 2c 20 6c 6f 73 69 6e 67 20 32 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 32 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f e,.losing.2.protons.and.2.neutro
6560 6e 73 2e 20 2d 32 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 2d 34 20 6d 61 73 73 ns..-2.atomic.number.and.-4.mass
6580 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 ..........\begin{itemize}.......
65a0 20 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 77 6f 20 6d 61 69 6e 20 74 79 70 65 73 20 6f 66 20 72 61 ..There.are.two.main.types.of.ra
65c0 64 69 6f 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 64 65 63 61 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 dioactive.decay:.........\subsub
65e0 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 44 65 63 61 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 section{Nuclear.Decay}.....\subs
6600 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 46 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 ection{Nuclear.Fission.and.Nucle
6620 61 72 20 46 75 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 ar.Fusion}.........The.mass.numb
6640 65 72 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 77 65 er.on.the.periodic.table.is.a.we
6660 69 67 68 74 65 64 20 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 28 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 62 75 6e 64 61 6e 63 65 20 6f ighted.average.(from.abundance.o
6680 66 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 29 20 6f 66 20 61 76 61 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 f.isotopes).of.available.isotope
66a0 73 20 69 6e 20 6e 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 43 6c 2d 33 35 20 s.in.nature..For.example,.Cl-35.
66c0 28 24 33 35 61 6d 75 24 29 20 73 68 6f 77 73 20 75 70 20 69 6e 20 6e 61 74 75 72 65 20 24 37 35 ($35amu$).shows.up.in.nature.$75
66e0 2e 37 38 5c 25 24 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 69 6d 65 20 61 6e 64 20 43 6c 2d 33 37 20 28 24 33 .78\%$.of.the.time.and.Cl-37.($3
6700 37 61 6d 75 24 29 20 73 68 6f 77 73 20 75 70 20 24 32 34 2e 32 32 5c 25 24 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 7amu$).shows.up.$24.22\%$.of.the
6720 20 74 69 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 .time..The.average.is.therefore.
6740 24 33 35 28 37 35 2e 37 38 5c 25 29 2b 33 37 28 32 34 2e 32 32 29 5c 73 69 6d 65 71 33 35 2e 34 $35(75.78\%)+37(24.22)\simeq35.4
6760 35 61 6d 75 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 72 65 20 61 74 6f 5amu$..................Where.ato
6780 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 5a 29 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 mic.number.(Z).and.mass.number.(
67a0 41 29 20 61 72 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6e 65 75 74 A).are.known,.the.number.of.neut
67c0 72 6f 6e 73 20 28 4e 29 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 24 4e 3d 41 2d 5a 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 rons.(N).follows.$N=A-Z$........
67e0 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 66 20 62 6f 74 68 20 4d 61 73 73 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 61 6e ..........If.both.Mass.Number.an
6800 64 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 65 d.Atomic.Number.must.be.displaye
6820 64 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 65 64 20 77 69 74 d,.the.mass.can.be.displayed.wit
6840 68 20 61 20 73 75 70 65 72 73 63 72 69 70 74 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 77 h.a.superscript.and.the.atomic.w
6860 2f 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 63 72 69 70 74 20 28 46 69 67 75 72 65 20 5c 72 65 66 7b 66 69 67 3a 69 /.a.subscript.(Figure.\ref{fig:i
6880 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 7d 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b sotope})...................\end{
68a0 66 69 67 75 72 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 6c 61 62 65 6c 7b 66 69 67 3a 69 figure}.............\label{fig:i
68c0 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 63 61 70 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 73 6f sotope}.............\caption{Iso
68e0 74 6f 70 65 20 52 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 tope.Representation}............
6900 20 24 5f 7b 31 33 7d 20 5e 7b 32 37 7d 24 41 6c 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 63 65 .$_{13}.^{27}$Al.............\ce
6920 6e 74 65 72 69 6e 67 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 66 69 67 75 72 65 7d 00 20 ntering.........\begin{figure}..
6940 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 ................There.are.severa
6960 6c 20 77 61 79 73 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 69 74 20 28 61 6c 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 l.ways.to.represent.it.(all.of.t
6980 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 hese.are.an.aluminum.atom.with.a
69a0 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 32 37 29 3a 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 2d 32 37 .mass.number.of.27):.aluminum-27
69c0 2c 20 41 6c 2d 32 37 2c 20 6f 72 20 24 5e 7b 32 37 7d 24 41 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 ,.Al-27,.or.$^{27}$Al...........
69e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 61 73 73 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 41 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6e ........Mass.Number.(A).is.the.n
6a00 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e umber.of.protons.and.neutrons.in
6a20 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 72 79 20 66 72 6f .a.given.atom..This.can.vary.fro
6a40 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 74 6f 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 m.atom.to.atom.of.the.same.eleme
6a60 6e 74 2e 20 41 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 6e nt..Atoms.of.the.same.element.an
6a80 64 20 73 61 6d 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 61 72 65 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 2e d.same.mass.number.are.isotopes.
6aa0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 .........\subsubsection{Isotopes
6ac0 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e }.........The.number.of.electron
6ae0 73 2c 20 75 6e 6c 69 6b 65 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 72 79 20 62 65 74 77 s,.unlike.protons,.can.vary.betw
6b00 65 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 54 een.atoms.of.the.same.element..T
6b20 68 65 73 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 64 20 69 hese.amounts.are.often.changed.i
6b40 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c n.chemical.reactions..For.exampl
6b60 65 2c 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 20 67 61 69 6e 20 6f 72 20 6c 6f 73 65 20 73 e,.aluminum.could.gain.or.lose.s
6b80 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 72 65 6d 61 69 everal.electrons.and.still.remai
6ba0 6e 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 69 74 20 61 n.aluminum..This.would.make.it.a
6bc0 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 n.ion,.and.dependent.on.the.numb
6be0 65 72 20 67 61 69 6e 65 64 20 6f 72 20 6c 6f 73 74 2c 20 69 74 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 65 63 6f er.gained.or.lost,.it.would.beco
6c00 6d 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 6f 72 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 6c 79 me.more.negatively.or.positively
6c20 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 28 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 .charged.(respectively.because.e
6c40 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 2d 31 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 lectrons.have.a.-1.charge)......
6c60 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ....\subsubsection{Ions}........
6c80 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 6c 6c 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 63 61 6e 20 63 .However,.not.all.elements.can.c
6ca0 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 61 6e 79 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 ontain.any.number.of.subatomic.p
6cc0 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 20 49 6e 20 66 61 63 74 2c 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 articles..In.fact,.all.atoms.of.
6ce0 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 73 74 72 69 63 74 65 64 20 74 a.given.element.are.restricted.t
6d00 6f 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 5a 29 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f o.their.atomic.number.(Z).of.pro
6d20 74 6f 6e 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 20 68 61 73 20 tons..For.example,.aluminum.has.
6d40 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 31 33 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 an.atomic.number.of.13,.therefor
6d60 65 20 69 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 68 61 73 20 31 33 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 79 20 64 e.it.always.has.13.protons,.by.d
6d80 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 41 6c 73 6f 2c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 69 73 20 70 72 efinition..Also,.because.this.pr
6da0 6f 70 65 72 74 79 20 69 73 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 operty.is.unique.to.an.element,.
6dc0 6e 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 no.two.elements.share.the.same.a
6de0 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2f 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2e 20 tomic.number/number.of.protons..
6e00 4f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 On.the.periodic.table,.these.inc
6e20 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 6c 6f 6e 67 20 61 20 72 6f 77 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 rease.along.a.row...............
6e40 20 20 20 20 41 73 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 63 61 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 61 6e 79 ....As.all.atoms.can.contain.any
6e60 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 28 .number.of.subatomic.particles.(
6e80 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 neutrons,.protons,.and.electrons
6ea0 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 )..........\subsubsection{Atomic
6ec0 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4e 6f 74 61 62 6c 79 2c 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e .Number}.........Notably,.proton
6ee0 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 s.and.neutrons.are.not.the.most.
6f00 62 61 73 69 63 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 79 20 61 basic.subatomic.particle..They.a
6f20 72 65 2c 20 69 6e 20 74 75 72 6e 2c 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 71 75 61 72 6b 73 2e re,.in.turn,.composed.of.quarks.
6f40 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 ..................The.mass.of.a.
6f60 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 24 31 2e 36 37 33 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 5c 73 69 6d 31 20 proton.is.$1.673*10^{-24}g\sim1.
6f80 61 6d 75 2e 24 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 24 amu.$.The.mass.of.a.neutron.is.$
6fa0 31 2e 36 37 35 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 5c 73 69 6d 31 61 6d 75 24 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 1.675*10^{-24}g\sim1amu$..The.ma
6fc0 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 69 73 20 24 ss.of.an.electron,.however,.is.$
6fe0 39 2e 31 30 39 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 38 7d 67 5c 73 69 6d 30 2e 30 30 30 36 20 61 6d 75 24 2e 00 9.109*10^{-28}g\sim0.0006.amu$..
7000 61 64 00 00 60 00 00 00 d8 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 17 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 61 0e 00 00 58 0e 00 00 ad..`...................a...X...
7020 39 0c 00 00 30 0c 00 00 ce 0b 00 00 af 0b 00 00 ae 09 00 00 a5 09 00 00 87 08 00 00 63 08 00 00 9...0.......................c...
7040 50 07 00 00 47 07 00 00 5d 05 00 00 2a 05 00 00 ea 04 00 00 cf 03 00 00 9e 03 00 00 71 02 00 00 P...G...]...*...............q...
7060 68 02 00 00 85 01 00 00 7c 01 00 00 e1 00 00 00 d8 00 00 00 d7 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 h.......|.......................
7080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
70a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
70c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ................................
70e0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 70 .........Compounds.are.another.p
7100 75 72 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 2d 2d 20 73 6f 6c 65 6c 79 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 ure.substance.--.solely.composed
7120 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 2d 2d 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 74 61 62 6c .of.one.molecule.--.such.as.tabl
7140 65 20 73 61 6c 74 20 28 24 4e 61 43 6c 24 29 2c 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 61 20 28 24 4e 48 5f 33 24 e.salt.($NaCl$),.ammonia.($NH_3$
7160 29 2c 20 77 61 74 65 72 2c 20 65 6d 65 72 61 6c 64 2c 20 6f 72 20 72 75 73 74 2e 00 20 20 20 20 ),.water,.emerald,.or.rust......
7180 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 70 75 72 65 .............Elements.are.a.pure
71a0 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 73 .substance.of.one.type.of.atom.s
71c0 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 48 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 2c 20 48 65 6c 69 75 6d 2c 20 4f 78 79 67 65 6e 2c uch.as.Hydrogen,.Helium,.Oxygen,
71e0 20 43 61 72 62 6f 6e 2c 20 49 72 6f 6e 2c 20 6f 72 20 43 68 6c 6f 72 69 6e 65 2e 20 4f 78 79 67 .Carbon,.Iron,.or.Chlorine..Oxyg
7200 65 6e 27 73 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 en's.most.stable.forms.are.molec
7220 75 6c 61 72 20 28 24 4f 5f 32 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 4f 5f 33 24 29 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 69 73 ular.($O_2$.and.$O_3$),.but.this
7240 20 69 73 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 61 .is.still.considered.an.elementa
7260 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6c 6c 20 6d 61 74 l.form...................All.mat
7280 74 65 72 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 61 20 70 75 72 65 20 ter.is.considered.either.a.pure.
72a0 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 28 61 6e 79 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f substance.(any.matter.that.canno
72c0 74 20 62 65 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 72 20 63 6f 6d t.be.decomposed.into.simpler.com
72e0 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 ponents.without.a.chemical.chang
7300 65 29 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 6f 72 20 73 61 6c 74 20 6f 72 20 61 20 6d 69 e).such.as.water.or.salt.or.a.mi
7320 78 74 75 72 65 20 28 61 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 77 6f 20 6f 72 20 6d xture.(a.combination.of.two.or.m
7340 6f 72 65 20 70 75 72 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 ore.pure.substances.that.are.not
7360 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 65 64 29 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 73 61 .chemically.combined).such.as.sa
7380 6c 74 20 77 61 74 65 72 2c 20 74 65 61 2c 20 73 74 65 65 6c 2c 20 6f 72 20 61 69 72 2e 00 20 20 lt.water,.tea,.steel,.or.air....
73a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6c 61 73 73 69 66 69 63 61 74 ......\subsubsection{Classificat
73c0 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 4d 61 74 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 ion.of.Matter}.........Physical.
73e0 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 properties.of.a.substance.can.be
7400 20 65 78 61 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 63 68 61 6e 67 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 .examined.without.changing.the.c
7420 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e hemical.structure.of.the.substan
7440 63 65 2e 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2c 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 ce..Chemical.properties,.on.the.
7460 6f 74 68 65 72 20 68 61 6e 64 2c 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 74 other.hand,.cannot.be..This.is.t
7480 68 65 20 73 6f 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 2e he.sole.and.singular.difference.
74a0 20 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 2f 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 .Physical/chemical.changes.are.t
74c0 68 65 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 6f 66 20 73 75 63 68 20 70 72 he.respective.changes.of.such.pr
74e0 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e operties..........\subsubsection
7500 7b 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 76 73 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 {Physical.vs.Chemical.Properties
7520 2f 43 68 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6c 65 6d 65 6e /Changes}.....\subsection{Elemen
7540 74 73 2c 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 4d 69 78 74 75 72 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 ts,.Compounds,.and.Mixtures}....
7560 20 20 20 20 20 53 61 64 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 6f 76 65 72 73 69 61 .....Sadly,.this.is.controversia
7580 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 73 74 73 20 74 68 69 6e 6b 20 74 68 61 74 l.and.most.scientists.think.that
75a0 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 69 .cold.fusion.isn't.possible..Thi
75c0 73 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 6f 76 65 72 73 69 61 6c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 s.is.controversial.because.there
75e0 20 69 73 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 65 61 6d 20 63 6c 61 69 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 61 62 69 6c 69 74 .is.one.team.claiming.the.abilit
7600 79 20 74 6f 20 70 65 72 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 y.to.perform.cold.fusion,.but.th
7620 65 79 20 6e 65 67 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 20 68 65 6c 69 75 6d 2c 20 ey.neglected.to.measure.helium,.
7640 74 68 65 69 72 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 their.neutron.production.results
7660 20 77 65 72 65 20 69 6e 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 78 70 65 63 74 65 64 .were.inconsistent.with.expected
7680 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 .numbers,.and.the.results.of.a.s
76a0 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 6f 6e 66 6c 69 63 74 69 imilar.experiment.with.conflicti
76c0 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 77 61 73 20 ng.and.inconclusive.results.was.
76e0 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 69 67 6e 6f 72 65 64 2e 20 46 6f 72 65 6d 6f 73 74 2c 20 74 68 completely.ignored..Foremost,.th
7700 65 79 20 64 69 64 6e 27 74 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 66 69 63 20 63 ey.didn't.allow.the.scientific.c
7720 6f 6d 6d 75 6e 69 74 79 20 74 6f 20 70 65 65 72 20 72 65 76 69 65 77 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 72 65 ommunity.to.peer.review.their.re
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7760 61 20 68 79 70 6f 74 68 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 73 6d 20 a.hypothetical.fusion.mechanism.
7780 77 68 69 63 68 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 68 61 76 65 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f which.would.have.lower.activatio
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77c0 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 72 6f 75 67 68 6c 79 20 72 6f 6f 6d 20 74 .fusion.reaction.(roughly.room.t
77e0 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 68 79 70 6f 74 68 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 70 61 emperature)..The.hypothetical.pa
7800 74 68 77 61 79 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 65 73 20 64 65 75 74 65 72 69 75 6d 20 28 48 2d 32 29 20 77 thway.involves.deuterium.(H-2).w
7820 61 74 65 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 70 61 6c 6c 61 64 69 75 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 70 6c 61 74 69 6e 75 6d ater.with.palladium.and.platinum
7840 2e 20 49 74 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 20 6d 69 6e 69 6d 61 6c 20 77 61 73 74 65 ..It.would.produce.minimal.waste
7860 2e 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6f 6c 64 20 46 ...........\subsubsection{Cold.F
7880 75 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 usion}.........A.common.fusion.p
78a0 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 69 6e 20 73 74 61 72 73 20 28 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 75 72 20 73 athway.in.stars.(including.our.s
78c0 75 6e 29 20 69 73 20 24 5e 32 48 2b 5e 33 48 5c 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 5e 35 48 65 5c 72 un).is.$^2H+^3H\rightarrow^5He\r
78e0 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 31 37 2e 36 4d 65 56 2b 5e 34 48 65 2b 6e 24 2e 20 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 ightarrow17.6MeV+^4He+n$..Anothe
7900 72 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 43 61 72 62 6f 6e 2d 4f r.common.pathway.is.the.Carbon-O
7920 78 79 67 65 6e 2d 4e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 63 79 63 6c 65 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 75 73 65 73 xygen-Nitrogen.cycle,.which.uses
7940 20 74 68 6f 73 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 74 6f 20 74 75 72 6e 20 34 20 69 6e 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 .those.atoms.to.turn.4.independe
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79a0 72 67 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 22 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 rgy..................."Nuclear.f
79c0 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 6c 69 usion.is.the.process.in.which.li
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7a00 6f 72 6d 20 61 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 68 65 61 76 69 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 orm.a.more.stable.heavier.nucleu
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7a40 72 65 61 74 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 22 20 49 66 20 68 75 6d 61 reat.amounts.of.energy.".If.huma
7a60 6e 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 68 61 72 6e 65 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 77 65 ns.were.able.to.harness.the.powe
7a80 72 20 6f 66 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 73 r.of.fusion.reactions,.then.thes
7aa0 65 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 e.would.be.very.useful.because.t
7ac0 68 65 79 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 20 6e 6f 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 77 61 73 74 65 2e 20 48 6f hey.produce.no.nuclear.waste..Ho
7ae0 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 77 65 20 63 61 6e 27 74 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 72 65 71 wever,.we.can't.because.they.req
7b00 75 69 72 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 68 69 67 68 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 uire.very.high.activation.energi
7b20 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 6d 65 6e 74 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 20 63 61 es,.and.containment.materials.ca
7b40 6e 27 74 20 77 69 74 68 73 74 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6c 6f 6e 67 2d n't.withstand.the.reaction.long-
7b60 74 65 72 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 77 68 79 20 74 68 65 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e term..This.is.why.the.only.known
7b80 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 .location.of.fusion.reactions.is
7ba0 20 77 69 74 68 69 6e 20 73 74 61 72 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 .within.stars..........\subsubse
7bc0 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 46 75 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 66 69 ction{Fusion}.........Example.fi
7be0 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 3a 20 24 5e 7b 32 33 35 7d 5f 7b 39 32 7d 55 2b 5e 31 5f ssion.pathway:.$^{235}_{92}U+^1_
7c00 30 6e 5c 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 5e 7b 39 34 7d 5f 7b 33 38 7d 53 72 2b 5e 7b 31 34 30 7d 0n\rightarrow^{94}_{38}Sr+^{140}
7c20 5f 7b 35 34 7d 58 65 2b 32 5e 31 5f 30 6e 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 _{54}Xe+2^1_0n$.................
7c40 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 63 6c 65 61 6e 20 65 .This.isn't.a.completely.clean.e
7c60 6e 65 72 67 79 20 73 6f 75 72 63 65 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2e 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 65 nergy.source,.however..Nuclear.e
7c80 6e 65 72 67 79 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 65 73 27 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 nergy.processes'.large.fission.p
7ca0 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 61 64 69 6f 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 61 73 74 65 20 77 68 roducts.are.radioactive.waste.wh
7cc0 69 63 68 20 6e 65 65 64 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 73 74 6f 72 65 64 20 66 61 72 20 61 77 61 79 20 ich.needs.to.be.stored.far.away.
7ce0 66 72 6f 6d 20 68 75 6d 61 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 6e 61 74 from.humans..These.can.occur.nat
7d00 75 72 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 65 78 70 urally,.but.they.don't.occur.exp
7d20 6c 6f 73 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 49 6e 20 6d 61 6e 2d 6d 61 64 65 20 70 6f 77 65 72 20 70 6c 61 6e losively..In.man-made.power.plan
7d40 74 73 20 6f 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 62 6f 6d 62 73 2c 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 ts.or.nuclear.bombs,.fission.rea
7d60 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 65 6c 66 2d 73 75 73 74 61 69 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 ctions.self-sustain.because.the.
7d80 6f 75 74 70 75 74 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 6e 65 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e output.neutrons.from.one.fission
7da0 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 72 69 67 67 65 72 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 .reaction.trigger.more.fission.r
7dc0 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 eactions..These.reactions.only.s
7de0 65 6c 66 2d 73 75 73 74 61 69 6e 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 elf-sustain.if.the.mass.of.the.r
7e00 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 20 69 73 20 61 74 20 6f 72 20 61 62 6f 76 65 20 eactive.material.is.at.or.above.
7e20 63 72 69 74 69 63 61 6c 20 6d 61 73 73 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e critical.mass,.which.is.differen
7e40 74 20 66 6f 72 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 t.for.different.nuclei..........
7e60 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 22 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 ........."Nuclear.fission.is.the
7e80 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 20 68 65 61 76 79 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 .process.in.which.a.heavy.nucleu
7ea0 73 20 69 73 20 73 70 6c 69 74 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 66 72 61 67 6d 65 s.is.split.into.two.large.fragme
7ec0 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 61 62 6c 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6d nts.of.comparable.mass.to.form.m
7ee0 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 2c 20 72 ore.stable.and.smaller.nuclei,.r
7f00 65 73 75 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 20 6f 66 20 67 72 65 61 74 esulting.in.the.release.of.great
7f20 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 22 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 69 73 .amounts.of.energy.".Nuclear.fis
7f40 73 69 6f 6e 20 77 6f 72 6b 73 20 62 79 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 68 69 74 74 69 6e 67 20 sion.works.by.a.neutron.hitting.
7f60 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 74 20 69 6e a.large.nucleus.and.making.it.in
7f80 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 75 6e 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 2e 20 54 68 65 6e 2c 20 74 68 to.an.unstable.isotope..Then,.th
7fa0 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 20 71 75 69 63 6b 6c 79 20 64 65 63 61 e.resulting.isotope.quickly.deca
7fc0 79 73 20 74 6f 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2c 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 ys.to.fission.products,.a.large.
7fe0 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 00 amount.of.energy,.and.neutrons..
8000 61 64 00 00 f8 00 00 00 bc 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 2a 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 e3 0e 00 00 b4 0e 00 00 ad..............*...............
8020 1d 0e 00 00 05 0e 00 00 a9 0d 00 00 23 0d 00 00 96 0c 00 00 91 0b 00 00 7b 0b 00 00 72 0b 00 00 ............#...........{...r...
8040 ee 0a 00 00 b2 0a 00 00 8a 0a 00 00 02 09 00 00 eb 08 00 00 c6 08 00 00 b3 08 00 00 7e 08 00 00 ............................~...
8060 49 08 00 00 0a 08 00 00 d4 07 00 00 be 07 00 00 a9 07 00 00 71 07 00 00 cf 05 00 00 c6 05 00 00 I...................q...........
8080 f6 04 00 00 ed 04 00 00 01 04 00 00 ea 03 00 00 cb 03 00 00 b8 03 00 00 95 03 00 00 79 03 00 00 ............................y...
80a0 5d 03 00 00 41 03 00 00 25 03 00 00 0f 03 00 00 fa 02 00 00 c4 02 00 00 c5 01 00 00 bc 01 00 00 ]...A...%.......................
80c0 bb 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
80e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
8100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
8120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
8140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
8160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
8180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
81a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 ................................
81c0 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 63 73 20 64 .............Quantum.mechanics.d
81e0 69 63 74 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 6e 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 66 65 72 6d 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 66 6f ictates.that.no.two.fermions.(fo
8200 72 20 6f 75 72 20 63 61 73 65 73 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 29 20 63 61 6e 20 73 68 61 72 r.our.cases,.electrons).can.shar
8220 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 e.the.same.quantum.numbers.(the.
8240 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 73 20 6f 66 only.defining.characteristics.of
8260 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 66 65 72 6d 69 6f 6e 29 2c 20 73 6f 20 61 6e 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 .a.given.fermion),.so.any.given.
8280 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 2c 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 2c 20 6f 72 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 63 61 6e 20 orbital,.subshell,.or.shell.can.
82a0 68 6f 6c 64 20 61 20 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e hold.a.finite.number.of.electron
82c0 73 2e 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 50 s...........\subsubsection{The.P
82e0 61 75 6c 69 20 45 78 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 auli.Exclusion.Principle}.......
8300 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 74 61 62 75 ..\end{center}.........\end{tabu
8320 6c 61 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 33 20 26 20 66 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 lar}.............3.&.f.\\.\hline
8340 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 32 20 26 20 64 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 .............2.&.d.\\.\hline....
8360 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 31 20 26 20 70 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .........1.&.p.\\.\hline........
8380 20 20 20 20 20 30 20 26 20 73 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .....0.&.s.\\.\hline............
83a0 20 24 6c 24 20 26 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .$l$.&.letter.\\.\hline.........
83c0 20 20 20 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 ....\hline.........\begin{tabula
83e0 72 7d 7b 7c 63 7c 63 7c 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 7d r}{|c|c|}.........\begin{center}
8400 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 .........Shells.are.represented.
8420 62 79 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 70 72 by.numbers.(i.e..shell.with.a.pr
8440 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6e 20 69 73 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 6e 29 2e 20 53 75 incipal.number.n.is.shell.n)..Su
8460 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 20 6e 75 6d bshells.are.represented.by.a.num
8480 62 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f ber.and.a.letter..The.angular.mo
84a0 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6c 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 74 68 69 73 20 70 61 74 mentum.number.l.follows.this.pat
84c0 74 65 72 6e 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 6e 3d 33 2c tern.(e.g..a.subshell.where.n=3,
84e0 20 6c 3d 30 20 69 73 20 33 73 29 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 .l=0.is.3s):..................A.
8500 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 77 69 74 subshell.is.all.the.orbitals.wit
8520 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 28 6e 29 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 67 h.the.same.principal.(n).and.ang
8540 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 28 6c 29 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 ular.momentum.(l).quantum.number
8560 73 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 6c 79 2c 20 61 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 68 61 73 20 75 6e 69 s..Similarly,.an.orbital.has.uni
8580 71 75 65 20 73 65 74 20 6f 66 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 2c 20 61 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f que.set.of.principal,.angular.mo
85a0 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d mentum,.and.magnetic.quantum.num
85c0 62 65 72 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 69 bers...................A.shell.i
85e0 73 20 61 20 73 65 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d s.a.set.of.orbitals.with.the.sam
8600 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2c 20 6e 2e 20 49 6e 20 61 20 6e 6f 6e 2d e.principal.number,.n..In.a.non-
8620 65 78 63 69 74 65 64 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 2d 2d 20 61 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 66 61 75 excited.state.--.as.is.the.defau
8640 6c 74 20 66 6f 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 2d 2d 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 63 63 75 70 79 lt.for.atoms.--.electrons.occupy
8660 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 77 65 73 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 .the.lowest.energy.orbitals.and.
8680 66 69 6c 6c 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 6c 79 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 6f fill.randomly.between.orbitals.o
86a0 66 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 61 6e 69 66 65 73 74 73 20 69 f.equal.energy..This.manifests.i
86c0 6e 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 66 69 6c 6c 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 63 75 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 n.shells.filling.consecutively..
86e0 46 75 6c 6c 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 28 49 20 77 Full.shells.are.more.stable.(I.w
8700 6f 75 6c 64 20 72 65 63 68 65 63 6b 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 74 27 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 ould.recheck.this,.and.it's.like
8720 6c 79 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 74 72 75 65 29 2e 20 42 6f 68 72 20 64 69 ly.not.completely.true)..Bohr.di
8740 61 67 72 61 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 agrams.are.often.used.to.represe
8760 6e 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 nt.these.shells..........\subsub
8780 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 53 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 4f section{Shells,.Subshells,.and.O
87a0 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 rbitals}.........\end{center}...
87c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ......\end{tabular}.............
87e0 20 6d 20 26 20 49 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 2d 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 2b 6c 20 .m.&.Integers.between.-l.and.+l.
8800 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 6c 20 26 20 50 6f 73 69 74 \\.\hline..............l.&.Posit
8820 69 76 65 20 69 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 30 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 2d 31 20 5c ive.integers.between.0.and.n-1.\
8840 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 6e 20 26 20 4e 6f 6e 7a 65 72 \.\hline..............n.&.Nonzer
8860 6f 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 69 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 o.positive.integers.\\.\hline...
8880 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 4e 6f 2e 20 26 20 50 6f 73 73 69 62 6c ...........Quantum.No..&.Possibl
88a0 65 20 56 61 6c 75 65 73 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c e.Values.\\.\hline.............\
88c0 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 72 7d 7b 20 7c hline.........\begin{tabular}{.|
88e0 20 63 20 7c 20 63 20 7c 20 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 .c.|.c.|.}.........\begin{center
8900 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 20 }.........In.the.electron.cloud.
8920 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 model,.electrons.are.located.in.
8940 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 28 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 68 65 72 65 orbitals.(a.given.location.where
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9c00 6e 64 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 74 74 6f 6d 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 nd.letters.on.the.bottom.represe
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9c60 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 66 69 67 75 72 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 6c .....\end{figure}.............\l
9c80 61 62 65 6c 7b 66 69 67 3a 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 63 abel{fig:orbital}.............\c
9ca0 61 70 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4c 69 74 68 69 75 6d 27 73 20 4f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 4e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f aption{Lithium's.Orbital.Notatio
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9ce0 2d 7d 5c 71 75 61 64 20 5c 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 7b 32 70 7d 7b 5c 2b 5c 30 5c 20 5c 2b 5c 30 -}\quad.\electron{2p}{\+\0\.\+\0
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9d80 20 20 46 6f 72 20 61 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 78 69 6d 75 6d 20 6e 75 ..For.an.orbital,.the.maximum.nu
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9e20 2d 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 31 7d 7b 32 7d 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 31 7d 7b 32 7d 24 29 -\frac{1}{2}$.and.$\frac{1}{2}$)
9e40 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 62 ,.which.allow.the.electrons.to.b
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9ea0 20 61 72 65 20 24 32 6c 2b 31 24 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 28 24 34 6c 2b 32 24 20 6d 61 78 .are.$2l+1$.orbitals.($4l+2$.max
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9ee0 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 61 69 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 .of.the.constraint.of.the.magnet
9f00 69 63 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2c 20 24 2d 6c 5c 6c 65 71 20 6d 5c 6c 65 71 ic.quantum.number,.$-l\leq.m\leq
9f20 20 6c 24 2e 20 47 6f 69 6e 67 20 75 70 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6c 61 79 65 72 2c 20 61 20 73 .l$..Going.up.another.layer,.a.s
9f40 68 65 6c 6c 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 73 20 24 6e 24 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 62 75 74 hell.contains.$n$.subshells,.but
9f60 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 6e 20 75 6e 65 71 75 61 6c 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 .these.have.an.unequal.number.of
9f80 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 49 74 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 73 20 24 6e 5e 32 24 2c 20 77 68 .orbitals..It.contains.$n^2$,.wh
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a000 61 64 00 00 6c 00 00 00 68 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 38 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0f 00 00 f7 0e 00 00 ad..l...h.......8...............
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a080 cf 06 00 00 8d 06 00 00 75 06 00 00 53 06 00 00 21 06 00 00 fd 05 00 00 b7 05 00 00 7d 05 00 00 ........u...S...!...........}...
a0a0 67 05 00 00 5e 05 00 00 14 05 00 00 fc 04 00 00 ce 04 00 00 9e 04 00 00 44 04 00 00 ef 03 00 00 g...^...................D.......
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a0e0 76 02 00 00 2c 02 00 00 16 02 00 00 0d 02 00 00 71 01 00 00 68 01 00 00 67 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 v...,...........q...h...g.......
a100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
a120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
a140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
a160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 74 72 61 .........................The.tra
a180 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 33 20 74 6f 20 31 33 nsition.metals.in.groups.3.to.13
a1a0 20 6f 72 20 42 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 63 6f 6d .or.B.typically.form.colored.com
a1c0 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 pounds,.and.can.have.useful.prop
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a200 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 onductivity...................\e
a220 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 50 72 nd{itemize}.............\item.Pr
a240 6f 64 75 63 65 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e oduce.characteristic.colors.when
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a280 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 48 61 76 65 20 61 6e 20 65 78 74 72 65 6d 65 6c 79 20 6c 6f 77 20 62 6f ..\item.Have.an.extremely.low.bo
a2a0 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 72 iling.point.............\item.Ar
a2c0 65 20 6e 6f 6e 66 6c 61 6d 6d 61 62 6c 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d e.nonflammable.............\item
a2e0 20 41 72 65 20 6f 64 6f 72 6c 65 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 61 73 74 65 6c 65 73 73 00 20 20 20 20 .Are.odorless.and.tasteless.....
a300 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 69 6e 65 ........\item.Are.completely.ine
a320 72 74 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 28 6e 6f 6e 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c rt.gases.(nonreactive).........\
a340 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 begin{itemize}.........The.noble
a360 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 31 38 20 6f 72 20 38 41 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 6e .gases.in.group.18.or.8A.are.non
a380 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 metals.which.typically:.........
a3a0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .........\end{itemize}..........
a3c0 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 2d 31 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 67 ...\item.-1.anion.because.they.g
a3e0 61 69 6e 20 31 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d ain.1.electron.............\item
a400 20 48 69 67 68 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 20 61 6e 64 .Highly.reactive.with.alkali.and
a420 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 6e 65 20 65 61 72 74 68 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 73 .alkaline.earth.metals.to.form.s
a440 61 6c 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 alt.............\item.Naturally.
a460 6f 63 63 75 72 69 6e 67 20 61 73 20 64 69 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 28 occuring.as.diatomic.molecules.(
a480 24 46 5f 32 24 2c 20 24 43 6c 5f 32 24 2c 20 24 42 72 5f 32 24 2c 20 24 49 5f 32 24 29 00 20 20 $F_2$,.$Cl_2$,.$Br_2$,.$I_2$)...
a4a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 54 6f 78 69 63 20 74 6f 20 62 69 6f 6c 6f 67 69 ..........\item.Toxic.to.biologi
a4c0 63 61 6c 20 6f 72 67 61 6e 69 73 6d 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 cal.organisms.............\item.
a4e0 48 69 67 68 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 Highly.reactive.with.metals.....
a500 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 ....\begin{itemize}.........The.
a520 68 61 6c 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 31 37 20 6f 72 20 37 41 20 61 72 65 20 6e halogens.in.group.17.or.7A.are.n
a540 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 3a 00 20 20 onmetals.which.are.typically:...
a560 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 ...............\end{itemize}....
a580 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 2b 32 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 .........\item.+2.cation.because
a5a0 20 74 68 65 79 20 6c 6f 73 65 20 32 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .they.lose.2.electrons..........
a5c0 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 6f 77 20 69 6e 20 64 65 6e 73 69 74 79 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 6c 6f ...\item.Low.in.density,.with.lo
a5e0 77 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 00 20 20 20 w.melting.and.boiling.points....
a600 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 53 6f 6d 65 77 68 61 74 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 .........\item.Somewhat.reactive
a620 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4d 6f 72 65 20 62 72 69 74 74 6c 65 20 .............\item.More.brittle.
a640 74 68 61 6e 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c than.alkali.metals.............\
a660 69 74 65 6d 20 53 69 6c 76 65 72 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 item.Silver.in.color.........\be
a680 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 6e gin{itemize}.........The.alkalin
a6a0 65 20 65 61 72 74 68 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 32 20 6f 72 20 32 41 20 e.earth.metals.in.group.2.or.2A.
a6c0 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 are.typically:..................
a6e0 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 \end{itemize}.............\item.
a700 2b 31 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 63 61 6e 20 65 61 73 69 6c +1.cation.because.they.can.easil
a720 79 20 6c 6f 73 65 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c y.lose.an.electron.............\
a740 69 74 65 6d 20 41 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 6f 78 69 64 69 7a 65 20 69 6e 20 61 69 72 00 20 20 20 20 item.Able.to.oxidize.in.air.....
a760 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 48 69 67 68 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 69 ........\item.Highly.reactive.wi
a780 74 68 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 77 61 74 65 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 th.oxygen.and.water.............
a7a0 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 53 6f 66 74 20 28 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 63 75 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 6b 6e \item.Soft.(can.be.cut.with.a.kn
a7c0 69 66 65 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 53 69 6c 76 65 72 20 69 6e ife).............\item.Silver.in
a7e0 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 .color.........\begin{itemize}..
a800 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 .......The.alkali.metals.in.grou
a820 70 20 31 20 6f 72 20 31 41 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 p.1.or.1A.are.typically:........
a840 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 ..........Groups.on.the.periodic
a860 20 74 61 62 6c 65 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e .table.are.often.have.significan
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a8a0 75 73 20 6e 61 6d 65 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e us.named..........\subsubsection
a8c0 7b 4d 69 6e 6f 72 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 {Minor.Groups}.........On.the.pe
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a940 61 6d 65 2c 20 69 74 73 20 73 79 6d 62 6f 6c 2c 20 69 74 73 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 ame,.its.symbol,.its.atomic.numb
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a980 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 72 20 66 61 6d 69 6c 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 .........Groups.or.families.are.
a9a0 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 66 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2c 20 69 groups.of.chemical.properties,.i
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a9e0 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 70 70 65 61 72 20 61 73 20 63 al.properties..These.appear.as.c
aa00 6f 6c 75 6d 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 6c 61 62 65 6c 65 64 20 31 2d 31 38 20 6f 72 20 31 olumns.and.are.labeled.1-18.or.1
aa20 41 2d 38 42 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 65 72 69 6f 64 73 20 61 A-8B...................Periods.a
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ab00 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 74 61 62 6c 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 oss.the.table..........\subsubse
ab20 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 65 72 69 6f 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 ction{Periods.and.Groups}.......
ab40 20 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 74 65 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 6c 65 20 28 65 ..Metals.tend.to.be.malleable.(e
ab60 61 73 69 6c 79 20 70 6f 75 6e 64 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 61 20 73 68 65 65 74 29 2c 20 64 75 63 asily.pounded.into.a.sheet),.duc
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aba0 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 2e 20 4e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c .conductive,.and.solid..Nonmetal
abc0 73 20 74 65 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 74 68 65 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 2d 2d 20 62 72 69 s.tend.to.be.the.opposite.--.bri
abe0 74 74 6c 65 2c 20 69 6e 73 75 6c 61 74 69 6e 67 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 2c 20 6c 69 71 ttle,.insulating,.and.solid,.liq
ac00 75 69 64 2c 20 6f 72 20 67 61 73 2e 20 53 65 6d 69 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 68 65 uid,.or.gas..Semimetals.have.the
ac20 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 74 68 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 .properties.of.both.............
ac40 20 20 20 20 20 20 4f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 65 ......On.the.periodic.table,.the
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aca0 6d 69 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 6f 72 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 6c 6f 69 64 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 mimetals.or.metalloids..........
acc0 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 2c 20 4e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 \subsubsection{Metals,.Nonmetals
ace0 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 53 65 6d 69 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 48 65 6e 72 79 20 ,.and.Semimetals}.........Henry.
ad00 4d 6f 73 65 6c 65 79 20 28 31 39 30 39 29 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 6e Moseley.(1909).completed.the.fin
ad20 61 6c 20 72 65 76 69 73 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 74 6f 64 61 79 27 73 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 al.revision.to.today's.periodic.
ad40 74 61 62 6c 65 20 62 79 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2c 20 69 6e table.by.using.atomic.number,.in
ad60 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 61 73 73 2c 20 74 6f 20 6f 72 67 61 6e 69 7a stead.of.atomic.mass,.to.organiz
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ada0 75 6e 74 65 64 20 66 6f 72 20 6d 61 73 73 20 76 61 72 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 64 69 66 unted.for.mass.variations.of.dif
adc0 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 ferent.isotopes..........\subsub
ade0 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 4d 6f 64 65 72 6e 20 50 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 54 61 62 6c section{The.Modern.Periodic.Tabl
ae00 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 44 6d 69 74 72 69 20 4d 65 6e 64 65 6c 65 65 76 20 28 31 38 36 e}.........Dmitri.Mendeleev.(186
ae20 39 29 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 65 64 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 9).designed.a.complete.periodic.
ae40 74 61 62 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6c 6c 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2e 20 48 65 20 table.of.all.known.elements..He.
ae60 6f 72 64 65 72 65 64 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 62 79 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 61 ordered.elements.by.increasing.a
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aea0 70 61 63 65 73 20 66 6f 72 20 75 6e 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 paces.for.undiscovered.elements.
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af00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 42 75 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 61 6e ........Building.off.of.this,.an
af20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 73 74 2c 20 4a 6f 68 6e 20 4e 65 77 6c 61 6e 64 73 2c 20 other.scientist,.John.Newlands,.
af40 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 6f 63 74 61 76 65 73 2e 20 41 6d developed.the.law.of.octaves..Am
af60 6f 6e 67 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2c 20 68 65 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 ong.known.elements,.he.discovere
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afc0 74 20 73 70 61 63 65 73 20 73 65 70 61 72 61 74 65 64 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e t.spaces.separated.if.the.elemen
afe0 74 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 6f 72 64 65 72 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 61 73 73 2e 00 ts.were.ordered.by.atomic.mass..
b000 61 64 00 00 3d 01 00 00 a9 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 14 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 99 0e 00 00 67 0e 00 00 ad..=.......................g...
b020 3c 0e 00 00 b3 0c 00 00 80 0c 00 00 36 0b 00 00 2d 0b 00 00 e0 09 00 00 b0 09 00 00 e7 07 00 00 <...........6...-...............
b040 de 07 00 00 2d 07 00 00 0c 07 00 00 dd 06 00 00 73 05 00 00 44 05 00 00 3e 03 00 00 0a 03 00 00 ....-...........s...D...>.......
b060 d3 01 00 00 a9 01 00 00 a8 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b0c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b0e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b1a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b .................\subsubsection{
b1c0 49 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 Ionization.Energy}.........Ionic
b1e0 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 61 6e 64 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 22 72 75 6c 65 73 22 20 .radii.and.atomic.radii."rules".
b200 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 75 6e 62 72 65 61 6b 61 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 are.not.unbreakable..Transition.
b220 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 62 72 65 61 6b 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 72 75 6c 65 73 20 62 metals.often.break.these.rules.b
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b260 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 73 ,.which.is.in.a.smaller.radius.s
b280 68 65 6c 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 69 6e hell..This.makes.atomic.radii.in
b2a0 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 61 20 73 crease.across.a.period.after.a.s
b2c0 6c 69 67 68 74 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 64 69 69 light.decrease..The.cation.radii
b2e0 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 76 61 72 79 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 74 74 65 72 6e 20 69 73 20 69 .also.vary,.but.the.pattern.is.i
b300 72 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e rregular..........\subsubsection
b320 7b 54 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 20 45 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 {Transition.Metal.Exceptions}...
b340 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 69 73 20 22 61 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 ......Ionic.radius.is."a.measure
b360 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 7a 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2e 22 20 41 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d .of.the.size.of.an.ion.".An.atom
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b3a0 41 6c 5e 7b 33 2b 7d 24 20 66 6f 72 20 41 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 29 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 Al^{3+}$.for.Aluminum).which.is.
b3c0 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 65 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 69 74 20 74 72 69 65 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 generated.when.it.tries.to.form.
b3e0 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 2e 20 54 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 a.full.valence.shell..The.ionic.
b400 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 radius.compared.to.the.atomic.ra
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b480 2c 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 61 20 67 72 ,.ionic.radii.increase.down.a.gr
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b4c0 77 69 74 68 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 72 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 53 69 within.the.cations.or.anions..Si
b4e0 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 20 69 gnificantly,.there.is.a.slight.i
b500 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 69 6f ncrease.between.cations.and.anio
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b540 7d 24 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 }$).........\subsubsection{Trend
b560 73 20 6f 66 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 52 61 64 69 69 7d 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 s.of.Ionic.Radii}..........Atomi
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b5c0 64 69 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 2e 22 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 6c 65 63 diatomic.molecule.".Because.elec
b5e0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 61 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 20 22 73 68 69 65 6c 64 trons.in.an.energy.level."shield
b600 22 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 74 ".the.nuclear.attraction.from.ot
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b6a0 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 73 74 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 69 that.the.largest.atomic.radius.i
b6c0 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 74 74 6f 6d 20 6c 65 66 74 20 63 6f 72 6e 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 s.in.the.bottom.left.corner.....
b6e0 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 20 41 74 .....\subsubsection{Trends.of.At
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b740 74 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 22 63 6f 72 72 65 63 74 22 20 64 ts.do.not.follow.the."correct".d
b760 69 61 67 6f 6e 61 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 20 74 72 65 6e 64 73 2c 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 69 6e 20 74 iagonal.rule.trends,.mostly.in.t
b780 68 65 20 64 2d 62 6c 6f 63 6b 2c 20 66 2d 62 6c 6f 63 6b 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 he.d-block,.f-block,.and.transit
b7a0 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 6b 6e 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 74 ional.metals..However,.knowing.t
b7c0 68 65 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 75 6e 6e 65 63 65 73 73 61 72 79 2e 00 20 20 he.exceptions.is.unnecessary....
b7e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 6e 20 6c 6f 6f 6b 69 6e 67 20 61 74 20 65 ...............When.looking.at.e
b800 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 73 65 71 75 65 6e 63 65 2c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 lements.in.sequence,.valence.ele
b820 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 27 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 75 70 20 75 6e 74 69 6c 20 74 ctrons'.orbitals.fill.up.until.t
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b860 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 66 69 6c 6c 65 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 68 69 67 68 65 73 74 20 .partially.filled..This.highest.
b880 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 22 energy.subshell.determines.the."
b8a0 62 6c 6f 63 6b 22 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 block".of.the.element..For.examp
b8c0 6c 65 2c 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 le,.an.element.with.an.electron.
b8e0 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 24 31 73 5e 32 32 73 5e 32 32 70 5e 34 24 20 69 73 20 configuration.$1s^22s^22p^4$.is.
b900 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 2d 62 6c 6f 63 6b 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 22 62 6c 6f 63 in.the.p-block..These.form."bloc
b920 6b 73 22 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 ks".across.the.table,.which.can.
b940 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 66 61 73 74 65 72 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6e 6f allow.faster.determination.of.no
b960 62 6c 65 2d 67 61 73 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 77 68 65 6e 20 64 6f 69 ble-gas.configurations.(when.doi
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b9c0 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 56 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 42 6c 6f 63 6b 73 7d 00 ection{Valence.Electron.Blocks}.
b9e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 6e 6f 74 61 62 6c 65 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 74 ........A.notable.exception.to.t
ba00 68 65 20 72 75 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 65 76 65 72 79 74 68 69 6e 67 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 he.rule.of.everything.after.the.
ba20 67 61 73 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 61 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 gas.being.a.valence.electron.is.
ba40 74 68 65 20 22 6f 75 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 64 65 72 22 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2e 20 41 20 the."out.of.order".subshells..A.
ba60 66 75 6c 6c 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 73 68 full.subshell.part.of.a.lower.sh
ba80 65 6c 6c 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 28 65 2e ell.than.the.other.subshells.(e.
baa0 67 2e 20 24 33 64 5e 31 30 24 20 69 6e 20 24 34 73 5e 32 33 64 5e 31 30 34 70 5e 33 24 29 20 69 g..$3d^10$.in.$4s^23d^104p^3$).i
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bae0 65 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 64 6f 65 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 70 70 6c 79 20 74 e.valence..This.does.not.apply.t
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bb20 22 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4e 6f ".subshells...................No
bb40 62 6c 65 2d 47 61 73 20 4e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 ble-Gas.Notation.is.also.useful.
bb60 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 65 6d 70 68 61 73 69 7a 65 73 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c because.it.emphasizes.valence.el
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bbc0 61 72 65 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 73 75 are.part.of.the.abbreviation.(su
bbe0 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 5b 4e 65 5d 24 29 20 61 72 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 63 6f 72 65 20 65 6c ch.as.$[Ne]$).are.called.core.el
bc00 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 75 6e 72 65 61 63 ectrons.and.are.generally.unreac
bc20 74 69 76 65 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 tive.because.they.are.part.of.a.
bc40 66 75 6c 6c 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 28 6d 75 63 68 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 20 full.shell.(much.like.the.noble.
bc60 67 61 73 65 73 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 69 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 29 2e 00 gases.they.are.abbreviated.to)..
bc80 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6f 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 ........\subsubsection{Core.and.
bca0 56 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 76 65 72 79 Valence.Electrons}.........Every
bcc0 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 68 61 73 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 .element.has.an.electron.configu
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bd00 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 6f 75 74 ecause.noble.gases.have.full.out
bd20 65 72 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 48 65 6c 69 75 6d 20 68 61 73 20 24 31 73 5e 32 er.shells.(e.g..Helium.has.$1s^2
bd40 24 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 4e 65 6f 6e 20 68 61 73 20 24 31 73 5e 32 32 $.configuration,.Neon.has.$1s^22
bd60 73 5e 32 32 70 5e 36 24 29 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f s^22p^6$),.electron.configuratio
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bdc0 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 53 6f 64 69 75 6d 27 73 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 example,.Sodium's.electron.confi
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be20 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 6c 6f 6e 67 68 61 6e 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 otation.is.called.longhand......
be40 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 6f 62 6c 65 2d 47 61 73 20 4e 6f 74 ....\subsubsection{Noble-Gas.Not
be60 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 ation}.....\subsection{Electrons
be80 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 50 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 54 61 62 6c 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .and.the.Periodic.Table}........
bea0 20 54 68 65 20 69 6e 6e 65 72 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 28 61 63 .The.inner.transition.metals.(ac
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bee0 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 77 68 69 art.of.the.transition.metals.whi
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bf20 61 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 72 61 64 69 6f 61 63 74 69 76 able..These.are.often.radioactiv
bf40 65 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 55 72 61 e,.especially.elements.after.Ura
bf60 6e 69 75 6d 2e 20 41 6e 79 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 55 72 61 6e 69 75 6d 20 nium..Any.element.after.Uranium.
bf80 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 22 74 72 61 6e 73 2d 55 72 61 6e 69 75 6d 2c 22 20 61 6e 64 20 74 is.called."trans-Uranium,".and.t
bfa0 68 65 73 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 79 6e 74 68 65 73 69 73 hese.elements.are.only.synthesis
bfc0 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 61 63 63 65 6c 65 72 61 74 6f 72 73 2c 20 6f 74 ed.with.nuclear.accelerators,.ot
bfe0 68 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 72 61 63 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 6e 20 45 61 72 74 68 00 her.than.trace.amounts.on.Earth.
c000 61 64 00 00 09 00 00 00 a5 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 d6 0c 00 00 cd 0c 00 00 ad..............................
c020 b5 0c 00 00 6f 0c 00 00 d9 0b 00 00 92 0b 00 00 7c 0b 00 00 73 0b 00 00 e7 0a 00 00 b3 0a 00 00 ....o...........|...s...........
c040 74 08 00 00 40 08 00 00 49 07 00 00 1f 07 00 00 08 07 00 00 d7 06 00 00 27 06 00 00 1e 06 00 00 t...@...I...............'.......
c060 fb 05 00 00 e3 05 00 00 6d 05 00 00 34 05 00 00 df 04 00 00 82 04 00 00 37 04 00 00 20 04 00 00 ........m...4...........7.......
c080 17 04 00 00 7c 03 00 00 73 03 00 00 6a 02 00 00 3e 02 00 00 a5 00 00 00 a4 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ....|...s...j...>...............
c0a0 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 6f 73 74 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 .............Most.gases.are.comp
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c0e0 73 68 72 69 6e 6b 29 20 61 6e 64 20 65 78 70 61 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 69 72 shrink).and.expand.to.fill.their
c100 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 77 65 6c 6c 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e .container..This.is.well.explain
c120 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 ed.with.kinetic-molecular.theory
c140 20 2d 2d 20 77 69 74 68 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 73 70 61 63 65 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 70 61 .--.with.large.spaces.between.pa
c160 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 62 65 74 77 rticles.and.no.interactions.betw
c180 65 65 6e 20 74 68 65 6d 2c 20 61 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 20 77 6f een.them,.a.smaller.container.wo
c1a0 75 6c 64 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 61 6e 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 73 74 61 79 uld.make.any.given.particle.stay
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c1e0 20 69 73 20 61 6c 72 65 61 64 79 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 73 70 61 63 65 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 .is.already.mostly.space),.and.t
c200 68 65 20 6c 61 63 6b 20 6f 66 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 he.lack.of.interaction.allow.the
c220 6d 20 74 6f 20 73 70 72 65 61 64 20 6f 75 74 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 69 6c 6c 2e 00 20 20 m.to.spread.out.as.they.will....
c240 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 ......\subsubsection{Properties.
c260 6f 66 20 47 61 73 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 61 6c 6c 6f of.Gases}.........This.also.allo
c280 77 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 28 66 6f 72 ws.the.relation.of.pressure.(for
c2a0 63 65 20 70 65 72 20 75 6e 69 74 20 61 72 65 61 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 ce.per.unit.area.of.the.containe
c2c0 72 29 2c 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 28 73 69 7a 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 r),.volume.(size.of.the.containe
c2e0 72 29 2c 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 28 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 r),.temperature.(average.kinetic
c300 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 .energy),.and.number.of.molecule
c320 73 20 28 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 29 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 67 s.(amount.of.gas).for.the.same.g
c340 61 73 2e 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 50 5f 31 56 5f 31 7d 7b 4e 5f 31 54 5f 31 7d 3d 5c 66 72 61 63 as..$\frac{P_1V_1}{N_1T_1}=\frac
c360 7b 50 5f 32 56 5f 32 7d 7b 4e 5f 32 54 5f 32 7d 24 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 {P_2V_2}{N_2T_2}$...............
c380 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 74 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 ....An.ideal.gas.is.the.theoreti
c3a0 63 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 69 73 20 77 65 6c 6c 2d 6d 6f 64 65 6c 65 64 20 62 79 20 cal.gas.that.is.well-modeled.by.
c3c0 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 2e 20 55 6e 64 65 72 20 kinetic-molecular.theory..Under.
c3e0 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 61 72 common.conditions,.most.gases.ar
c400 65 20 61 70 70 72 6f 78 69 6d 61 74 65 6c 79 20 69 64 65 61 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 e.approximately.ideal...........
c420 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ........\end{itemize}...........
c440 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 ...\item.Average.kinetic.energy.
c460 69 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 is.only.dependent.on.temperature
c480 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 6c 6c 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f ..............\item.All.collisio
c4a0 6e 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 65 72 66 65 63 74 ns.between.particles.are.perfect
c4c0 6c 79 20 65 6c 61 73 74 69 63 20 28 6e 6f 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 6c 6f 73 74 29 00 20 ly.elastic.(no.energy.is.lost)..
c4e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 20 66 6f 72 ...........\item.There.is.no.for
c500 63 65 20 6f 66 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 72 20 72 65 70 75 6c 73 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 ce.of.attraction.or.repulsion.be
c520 74 77 65 65 6e 20 67 61 73 20 70 61 72 74 69 6c 63 65 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 tween.gas.partilces.............
c540 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4d 6f 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 \item.Most.of.the.volume.of.the.
c560 67 61 73 20 69 73 20 65 6d 70 74 79 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 47 gas.is.empty.............\item.G
c580 61 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 61 64 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 ases.are.made.of.a.large.number.
c5a0 6f 66 20 68 61 72 64 20 73 70 68 65 72 65 73 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 62 69 6c 6c 69 61 72 64 20 62 of.hard.spheres.(like.billiard.b
c5c0 61 6c 6c 73 29 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 6f 75 73 2c 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 20 6d 6f 74 69 alls).in.continuous,.random.moti
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c600 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 70 6f 73 74 75 6c 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 3a 00 20 20 ...The.model.postulates.that:...
c620 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 ...............Kinetic-molecular
c640 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 69 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 22 61 73 20 .theory.is.a.model.of.gases."as.
c660 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 61 6e 64 a.large.number.of.constantly.and
c680 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 6c 79 20 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 .randomly.moving.particles.that.
c6a0 63 6f 6c 6c 69 64 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 77 collide.with.eachother.and.the.w
c6c0 61 6c 6c 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c alls.of.the.container..........\
c6e0 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 4d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 subsubsection{Kinetic-Molecular.
c700 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 47 61 73 65 73 7d 00 5c Theory}.....\subsection{Gases}.\
c720 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 74 61 74 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 section{States.and.Properties.of
c740 20 4d 61 74 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 62 6f 6e 64 .Matter}.........When.atoms.bond
c760 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 70 75 6c 6c 20 6f 6e 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 ,.they.pull.on.valence.electrons
c780 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 .shared.in.the.bond..Electronega
c7a0 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 65 6e 67 74 68 20 6f 66 20 tivity.measures.the.strength.of.
c7c0 74 68 69 73 20 70 75 6c 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 this.pull..This.tends.to.increas
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c820 67 72 6f 75 70 20 28 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 29 00 group.(higher.nuclear.distance).
c840 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 69 6e ........\subsubsection{Trends.in
c860 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 63 .Electronegativity}.........Elec
c880 74 72 6f 6e 20 61 66 66 69 6e 69 74 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 72 65 71 75 tron.affinity.is.the.energy.requ
c8a0 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 64 64 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 61 20 6e 65 75 ired.to.add.an.electron.to.a.neu
c8c0 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 20 70 68 61 73 65 2e 20 4f 66 74 65 tral.atom.in.the.gas.phase..Ofte
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c940 6c 79 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 28 6d 6f 72 65 20 65 ly.becomes.more.negative.(more.e
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c980 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e .but.there.are.several.exception
c9a0 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 32 20 61 6e 64 20 31 35 20 s..For.example,.groups.2.and.15.
c9c0 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e release.very.small.amounts.of.en
c9e0 65 72 67 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 6f 72 20 68 61 6c 66 2d 66 75 6c 6c 20 ergy.because.a.new.or.half-full.
ca00 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 62 65 67 69 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 66 69 6c 6c 65 64 2e 20 49 74 subshell.begins.to.be.filled..It
ca20 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 20 6c 65 73 73 20 6e 65 67 61 74 .also.tends.to.become.less.negat
ca40 69 76 65 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 ive.down.a.given.group.because.t
ca60 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 2c 20 61 he.nuclear.distance.increases,.a
ca80 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e nd.the.potential.energy.differen
caa0 63 65 20 62 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 ce.bcomes.smaller..........\subs
cac0 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 41 66 66 ubsection{Trends.in.Electron.Aff
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cb00 66 7b 68 74 74 70 73 3a 2f 2f 63 6f 75 72 73 65 73 2e 6c 75 6d 65 6e 6c 65 61 72 6e 69 6e 67 2e f{https://courses.lumenlearning.
cb20 63 6f 6d 2f 63 68 65 6d 69 6e 74 65 72 2f 63 68 61 70 74 65 72 2f 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 2d 74 com/cheminter/chapter/periodic-t
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cb60 4c 65 61 72 6e 69 6e 67 20 28 66 69 67 2e 20 31 29 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 Learning.(fig..1)}..............
cb80 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 ....\end{itemize}.............\i
cba0 74 65 6d 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 65 61 63 68 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 28 tem.decrease.across.each.group.(
cbc0 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 higher.nuclear.distance)........
cbe0 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 6c 79 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 62 65 74 .....\item.slightly.decrease.bet
cc00 77 65 65 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 32 20 61 6e 64 20 31 33 20 28 62 65 67 69 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 ween.groups.2.and.13.(begins.to.
cc20 61 64 64 20 74 6f 20 6e 65 77 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 29 20 5c 26 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 31 add.to.new.subshell).\&.groups.1
cc40 35 20 61 6e 64 20 31 36 20 28 62 65 67 69 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 61 64 64 20 74 6f 20 68 61 6c 66 2d 5.and.16.(begins.to.add.to.half-
cc60 66 75 6c 6c 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d full.subshell).............\item
cc80 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 28 6e 75 63 6c 65 .increase.across.a.period.(nucle
cca0 61 72 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 ar.charge.increases).........\be
ccc0 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 6f gin{itemize}..................To
cce0 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 6f 70 69 .form.the.ions.mentioned.in.topi
cd00 63 20 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 52 61 64 69 69 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 c.Trends.of.Ionic.Radii,.there.i
cd20 73 20 61 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 s.a.significant.amount.of.energy
cd40 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e .required.to.remove.the.electron
cd60 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 28 66 6f 72 20 74 68 s..This.amount.of.energy.(for.th
cd80 65 20 67 61 73 65 6f 75 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 29 20 69 73 e.gaseous.form.of.an.element).is
cda0 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 .called.the.ionization.energy..T
cdc0 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 6e 20 he.ionization.energy.depends.on.
cde0 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 66 61 63 74 6f 72 73 3a 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 63 68 61 several.factors:.the.nuclear.cha
ce00 72 67 65 20 28 61 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 69 73 20 68 61 72 64 65 rge.(a.stronger.nucleus.is.harde
ce20 72 20 74 6f 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 29 2c 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 r.to.remove.from),.the.distance.
ce40 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 of.the.electron.from.the.nucleus
ce60 20 28 61 20 66 61 72 20 61 77 61 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 74 61 6b 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 .(a.far.away.electron.takes.more
ce80 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 .energy),.and.the.number.of.elec
cea0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 64 20 28 72 65 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 trons.removed.(removing.an.elect
cec0 72 6f 6e 20 77 68 69 6c 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 ron.while.there.is.a.strong.elec
cee0 74 72 69 63 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 69 63 75 6c 74 20 74 68 tric.charge.is.more.difficult.th
cf00 61 6e 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 29 an.removing.from.a.neutral.atom)
cf20 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 74 69 63 65 61 62 6c 65 20 64 69 66 66 ..Because.of.the.noticeable.diff
cf40 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e erence.in.the.number.of.electron
cf60 73 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 64 2c 20 66 69 72 73 74 2c 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 2c 20 74 68 69 72 64 2c s.removed,.first,.second,.third,
cf80 20 65 74 63 2e 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 .etc..ionization.energies.are.re
cfa0 63 6f 72 64 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f corded.as.the.energy.required.to
cfc0 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 .remove.a.given.electron..The.fi
cfe0 72 73 74 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 3a 00 rst.ionization.energy.tends.to:.
d000 61 64 00 00 14 00 00 00 94 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 19 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 f7 0f 00 00 29 0f 00 00 ad..........................)...
d020 20 0f 00 00 08 0d 00 00 ef 0c 00 00 c2 0c 00 00 fb 0a 00 00 bb 0a 00 00 8c 09 00 00 83 09 00 00 ................................
d040 ed 08 00 00 cb 08 00 00 44 07 00 00 1c 07 00 00 b2 05 00 00 89 05 00 00 20 05 00 00 17 05 00 00 ........D.......................
d060 7a 03 00 00 56 03 00 00 20 03 00 00 c9 01 00 00 c0 01 00 00 be 00 00 00 94 00 00 00 93 00 00 00 z...V...........................
d080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 ............................\sub
d0a0 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 7d 00 20 20 subsection{Plasma.Properties}...
d0c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6d 6f 72 70 68 6f 75 73 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 2c 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f ......Amorphous.solids,.on.the.o
d0e0 74 68 65 72 20 68 61 6e 64 2c 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 ther.hand,.are.not.periodic.and.
d100 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 6c 69 6e 65 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 74 69 6c 6c crystalline,.but.these.are.still
d120 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d .solid..The.particles.often.form
d140 20 61 6d 6f 72 70 68 6f 75 73 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 72 61 70 69 64 .amorphous.structures.from.rapid
d160 20 63 6f 6f 6c 69 6e 67 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 68 61 6c 74 73 20 61 73 73 65 6d 62 6c 79 20 6f 66 .cooling.which.halts.assembly.of
d180 20 75 6e 69 74 20 63 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 73 20 69 6e 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 .unit.cells.as.in.crystals..This
d1a0 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 2d 6c 69 6b 65 20 6d 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 00 .can.allow.liquid-like.movement.
d1c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 63 6f .................Solids.are.a.co
d1e0 6c 64 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 72 69 67 ld.state.of.matter.which.are.rig
d200 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 6c 79 20 72 65 73 69 73 74 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 74 6f id.and.strongly.resist.change.to
d220 20 73 68 61 70 65 20 6f 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 2e 20 53 6f 6d 65 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 61 72 .shape.or.volume..Some.solids.ar
d240 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 6c 69 6e 65 2c 20 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 79 e.crystalline,.meaning.that.they
d260 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 20 28 72 65 70 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 75 6e 69 74 20 .have.a.regular.(repeating.unit.
d280 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 74 68 which.is.significantly.larger.th
d2a0 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 74 68 65 6d 73 65 6c 76 65 73 29 20 6c 61 74 an.the.particles.themselves).lat
d2c0 74 69 63 65 20 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 43 72 79 73 74 61 6c 6c 69 6e 65 20 73 6f tice.arrangement..Crystalline.so
d2e0 6c 69 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 63 6f 6d 70 72 65 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 28 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c lids.are.incompressible.(typical
d300 6c 79 20 64 65 6e 73 65 20 61 6e 64 20 68 61 72 64 29 20 61 6e 64 20 76 69 62 72 61 74 65 2e 00 ly.dense.and.hard).and.vibrate..
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e840 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 61 20 73 74 72 69 63 74 20 68 69 65 72 61 .of.matter.follow.a.strict.hiera
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e8a0 20 42 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6c 64 65 73 74 20 33 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 .Between.the.coldest.3.state.of.
e8c0 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2c 20 61 6e 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 energy,.any.given.transition.is.
e8e0 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 64 20 61 73 20 4d 65 6c possible..These.are.named.as.Mel
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e920 6c 69 71 75 69 64 2c 20 42 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 2f 43 6f 6e 64 65 6e 73 69 6e 67 20 62 65 74 77 65 liquid,.Boiling/Condensing.betwe
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e980 67 61 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 68 61 73 65 20 63 68 61 6e gas..The.first.of.the.phase.chan
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ea00 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 61 69 72 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 72 65 6c these.pairs.makes.substances.rel
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ea40 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 4d 6f 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 50 68 61 73 65 20 43 ion{Molecular.Motion.and.Phase.C
ea60 68 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 68 61 73 65 20 43 68 hanges}.....\subsection{Phase.Ch
ea80 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 anges}.........\end{itemize}....
eaa0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 46 65 77 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 31 5c 25 20 6f 66 .........\item.Fewer.than.1\%.of
eac0 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 65 64 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .particles.are.ionized..........
eae0 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 27 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 ...\item.Electrons'.kinetic.ener
eb00 67 79 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 gy.becomes.light.............\it
eb20 65 6d 20 54 68 65 79 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 68 6f 74 2f 66 61 73 74 20 65 6c 65 63 em.They.often.have.hot/fast.elec
eb40 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 28 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 65 78 63 65 65 64 69 6e 67 6c 79 20 6c 69 67 trons.(which.are.exceedingly.lig
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eb80 69 6e 67 20 61 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 ing.a.thermal.equilibrium.......
eba0 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 65 63 68 6e ...\begin{itemize}.........Techn
ebc0 6f 6c 6f 67 79 20 75 74 69 6c 69 73 69 6e 67 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 20 61 72 65 20 76 65 72 79 ology.utilising.plasmas.are.very
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ec00 20 74 68 72 5c 2d 75 73 74 65 72 73 2c 20 61 72 63 20 77 65 6c 64 65 72 73 2c 20 70 6c 61 73 6d .thr\-usters,.arc.welders,.plasm
ec20 61 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 76 65 6c 74 79 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 62 a.displays,.and.novelty.plasma.b
ec40 61 6c 6c 73 2e 20 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 alls..Plasma.displays.and.plasma
ec60 20 62 61 6c 6c 73 20 70 6f 73 65 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 74 65 72 65 73 74 69 6e 67 20 65 78 63 65 70 .balls.pose.an.interesting.excep
ec80 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 22 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 22 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 70 6c 61 73 6d tion.to."standard".thermal.plasm
eca0 61 73 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 6e 69 6e 67 2c 20 73 74 61 72 73 2c 20 6f 72 as.(such.as.lightning,.stars,.or
ecc0 20 61 72 63 20 77 65 6c 64 65 72 73 29 20 2d 2d 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 28 6e 6f 6e 2d 74 68 65 72 6d .arc.welders).--.cold.(non-therm
ece0 61 6c 29 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 65 al).plasmas..These.are.able.to.e
ed00 78 69 73 74 20 61 73 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 3a 00 20 20 xist.as.cold.plasmas.because:...
ed20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 6e 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 62 75 69 6c ...............When.charges.buil
ed40 64 20 75 70 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 73 20 74 6f 20 67 72 6f 75 6e 64 2c 20 69 74 27 73 d.up.from.clouds.to.ground,.it's
ed60 20 73 6f 20 70 6f 77 65 72 66 75 6c 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 61 .so.powerful.that.plasma.forms.a
ed80 6c 6f 6e 67 20 69 74 73 20 70 61 74 68 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 63 68 61 long.its.path.in.order.to.discha
eda0 72 67 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 61 20 6c 69 67 68 rge.the.electrons.through.a.ligh
edc0 74 6e 69 6e 67 20 73 74 72 69 6b 65 2e 20 42 6f 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 74 tning.strike..Both.the.sun.and.t
ede0 68 65 20 73 74 61 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f he.stars.are.plasmas,.and.the.so
ee00 6c 61 72 20 77 69 6e 64 27 73 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 lar.wind's.interactions.with.the
ee20 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 6f 73 70 68 65 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 75 70 70 65 72 20 61 74 6d 6f 73 70 68 .magnetosphere.and.upper.atmosph
ee40 65 72 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 75 72 6f 72 61 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 2e ere.forming.auroras.are.plasmas.
ee60 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 69 .........\subsubsection{Plasma.i
ee80 6e 20 4e 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 54 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c 6f 67 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 n.Nature.and.in.Technology}.....
eea0 20 20 20 20 41 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 ....A.plasma.is.the.state.of.mat
eec0 74 65 72 20 68 6f 74 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 67 61 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 ter.hotter.than.a.gas..The.diffe
eee0 72 65 6e 63 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a rence.is.that.plasmas.have.ioniz
ef00 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 ed.particles.(i.e..electrons.are
ef20 20 64 65 74 61 63 68 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 62 79 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2e .detached.from.atoms.by.energy).
ef40 20 54 68 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 70 6c 61 73 .The.temperature.of.thermal.plas
ef60 6d 61 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 76 61 72 69 65 74 79 29 20 63 61 mas.(the.most.common.variety).ca
ef80 6e 20 62 65 20 74 68 6f 75 73 61 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 20 64 65 67 72 65 65 73 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 n.be.thousands.of.degrees.or.mor
efa0 65 2e 20 54 68 65 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 69 74 79 2c 20 61 72 65 e..They.conduct.electricity,.are
efc0 20 63 6f 6d 70 72 65 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 68 61 76 65 20 6e 6f 20 64 65 66 69 6e .compressible,.and.have.no.defin
efe0 69 74 65 20 73 68 61 70 65 20 6f 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 00 ite.shape.or.volume.like.gases..
f000 61 64 00 00 18 01 00 00 88 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 15 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 2c 0f 00 00 2b 0f 00 00 ad......................,...+...
f020 9c 0e 00 00 6a 0e 00 00 8e 0d 00 00 58 0d 00 00 46 0c 00 00 45 0c 00 00 46 0b 00 00 45 0b 00 00 ....j.......X...F...E...F...E...
f040 97 0a 00 00 78 0a 00 00 52 0a 00 00 6c 08 00 00 6b 08 00 00 08 07 00 00 ee 06 00 00 e2 04 00 00 ....x...R...l...k...............
f060 c1 04 00 00 bb 01 00 00 88 01 00 00 87 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f0c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f0e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
f180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 46 6f 72 6d .........\subsubsection{The.Form
f1a0 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 43 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 4c 61 74 74 69 63 65 73 7d 00 09 49 6f 6e 73 ation.of.Crystal.Lattices}..Ions
f1c0 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 6e 20 65 78 74 .are.typically.atoms.with.an.ext
f1e0 72 61 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 6d 61 64 ra.electron,.but.ions.can.be.mad
f200 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 28 70 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 e.of.multiple.atoms.(polyatomic.
f220 69 6f 6e 73 29 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 63 74 20 61 73 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 ions)..These.ions.act.as.single.
f240 75 6e 69 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 74 6f 67 65 units.and.are.always.bonded.toge
f260 74 68 65 72 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 6c 79 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 69 73 20 64 ther.covalently..The.charge.is.d
f280 69 73 74 72 69 62 75 74 65 64 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 74 69 72 65 20 6d 6f 6c istributed.across.the.entire.mol
f2a0 65 63 75 6c 65 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 75 6e 69 74 20 69 73 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 ecule.because.the.unit.is.covale
f2c0 6e 74 6c 79 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 75 73 20 73 68 61 72 65 73 20 65 6c 65 63 ntly.bonded.and.thus.shares.elec
f2e0 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 trons..This.can.also.cause.some.
f300 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 71 75 69 72 6b 73 20 2d 2d 2d 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 74 68 61 notational.quirks.---.mostly.tha
f320 74 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 41 6c 5f t.chemical.formulas.such.as.$Al_
f340 32 28 43 4f 5f 33 29 5f 33 24 20 63 61 6e 20 65 78 69 73 74 2e 20 50 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 2(CO_3)_3$.can.exist..Polyatomic
f360 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 6e 69 74 72 69 74 65 73 2c 20 6e 69 74 72 61 74 65 73 .ions.include.nitrites,.nitrates
f380 2c 20 73 75 6c 66 69 74 65 2c 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 61 74 65 2c 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 75 6d 2c 20 ,.sulfite,.carbonate,.ammonium,.
f3a0 63 79 61 6e 69 64 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 75 6d 65 72 6f 75 73 20 6f 74 68 65 72 73 2e 20 54 68 cyanide,.and.numerous.others..Th
f3c0 65 20 74 72 61 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 61 6c 67 65 62 72 61 69 63 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 e.traditional.algebraic.calculat
f3e0 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 73 20 ion.of.ion.counts.still.applies.
f400 69 6e 20 74 68 69 73 20 63 61 73 65 3a 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 68 in.this.case:.for.an.ion.with.ch
f420 61 72 67 65 20 41 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 20 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 68 61 arge.A.and.a.second.ion.with.cha
f440 72 67 65 20 42 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 75 6e 64 20 rge.B,.they.form.an.ionic.bound.
f460 6f 66 20 24 41 5f 7b 42 7d 42 5f 7b 41 7d 24 20 28 73 69 6d 70 6c 69 66 69 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 of.$A_{B}B_{A}$.(simplified.to.a
f480 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 73 73 75 6d 69 6e 67 20 41 20 61 6e 64 20 42 20 72 65 70 .ratio,.and.assuming.A.and.B.rep
f4a0 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 29 2e resent.the.respective.elements).
f4c0 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 49 6f 6e 73 ..\subsubsection{Polyatomic.Ions
f4e0 7d 00 09 49 72 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c }..Ironic.compounds.form.crystal
f500 73 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 20 41 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 s.instead.of.molecules..A.crysta
f520 6c 20 69 73 20 22 61 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 l.is."a.solid.in.which.the.parti
f540 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 2c 20 cles.are.arranged.in.a.regular,.
f560 72 65 70 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 70 61 74 74 65 72 6e 2e 22 20 54 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 repeating.pattern.".The.crystal.
f580 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 lattice.is.the.structure.of.this
f5a0 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 28 68 6f 77 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 .given.crystal.(how.exactly.the.
f5c0 61 74 6f 6d 73 2f 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6c 74 65 72 6e 61 74 65 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 6f 75 74 20 atoms/ions.alternate.throughout.
f5e0 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 29 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 the.crystal)..Because.ionic.bond
f600 73 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 63 68 s.don't.form.molecules,.their.ch
f620 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 69 73 20 61 20 22 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 75 6e 69 emical.formula.is.a."formula.uni
f640 74 2c 22 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 75 6e 69 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d t,".the.smallest.unit.of.the.com
f660 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 6c pound.in.the.crystal..This.is.al
f680 77 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 73 74 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 ways.the.simplest.ratio..For.exa
f6a0 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 6e 65 76 65 72 20 62 65 20 61 20 24 4e 61 5f mple,.there.will.never.be.a.$Na_
f6c0 32 43 6c 5f 32 24 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 69 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 69 2Cl_2$.because.this.would.simpli
f6e0 66 79 20 74 6f 20 24 4e 61 43 6c 24 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 72 fy.to.$NaCl$...\subsubsection{Cr
f700 79 73 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 09 46 6f 72 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2c 20 6e 6f 74 65 ystals}..For.ionic.bonding,.note
f720 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 66 69 6e 61 6c 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6d 61 6e .that.this.final.requirement.man
f740 69 66 65 73 74 73 20 69 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 74 6f ifests.in.metal.and.nonmetal.ato
f760 6d 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 ms.forming.ionic.bonds.with.the.
f780 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 metal.becoming.a.cation.(positiv
f7a0 65 29 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 e).and.the.nonmetal.becoming.an.
f7c0 61 6e 69 6f 6e 20 28 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 68 61 70 70 65 6e 73 20 62 anion.(negative)..This.happens.b
f7e0 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 20 66 72 ecause.the.electrons.transfer.fr
f800 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 om.the.metal.to.the.nonmetal.for
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f840 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f .the.atoms.together.with.electro
f860 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 73 6d 2e 00 00 09 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 69 73 20 61 20 magnetism....Ionic.bonding.is.a.
f880 72 65 6c 61 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 77 relatively.simple.type.of.bond.w
f8a0 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 6a 6f 72 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 73 here.the.majority.of.electrons.s
f8c0 74 61 79 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 2e 20 tay.in.the.valence.of.one.atom..
f8e0 54 68 69 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 74 This.definition.defines.the.rest
f900 72 69 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f riction.of.difference.in.electro
f920 6e 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 3a 20 61 6e 79 20 74 77 6f 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 63 n.negativity:.any.two.elements.c
f940 61 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 66 an.form.an.ionic.bond.if.the.dif
f960 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 ference.of.their.electron.negati
f980 76 69 74 69 65 73 20 24 3e 31 2e 37 24 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 vities.$>1.7$..The.charge.of.the
f9a0 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6d 61 .ions.of.a.given.element.also.ma
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fa00 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 28 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 24 41 6c 5e 7b 2b 33 7d 24 20 63 harges.(for.example,.$Al^{+3}$.c
fa20 61 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 24 4f 5e 7b 2d 32 7d 24 2c 20 62 75 an.form.a.bond.with.$O^{-2}$,.bu
fa40 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 24 43 61 5e 7b 2b 32 7d 24 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 t.not.$Ca^{+2}$)..........\subsu
fa60 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 bsection{Ionic.Bonding}.....\sub
fa80 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 section{Ionic.Bonding}.........P
faa0 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f 72 74 20 hysical.changes.are.of.the.sort.
fac0 6f 66 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 2c 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 2c 20 63 75 74 74 69 6e 67 2c 20 61 6e of.melting,.boiling,.cutting,.an
fae0 64 20 62 65 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 d.bending..Chemical.changes.are.
fb00 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f 72 74 20 6f 66 20 62 75 72 6e 69 6e 67 2c 20 63 6f 6f 6b 69 6e 67 2c of.the.sort.of.burning,.cooking,
fb20 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 69 72 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 .water.reactions,.and.air.reacti
fb40 6f 6e 73 2e 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 6f 6d 65 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 64 69 ons...........Some.possible.indi
fb60 63 61 74 6f 72 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 28 6d 65 61 cators.of.a.chemical.change.(mea
fb80 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 64 69 63 61 74 6f 72 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f ning.that.these.indicators.do.no
fba0 74 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 73 68 6f 77 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e t.conclusively.show.that.a.given
fbc0 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 73 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 29 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 63 6f 6c .change.is.chemical).include.col
fbe0 6f 72 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 64 69 73 61 70 70 65 61 72 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 or.change,.solid.disappearance,.
fc00 67 61 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 70 72 65 63 69 70 69 74 61 74 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 gas.formation,.precipitate.forma
fc20 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 6e 64 20 68 65 61 74 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 tion,.and.light.and.heat.product
fc40 69 6f 6e 2e 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 61 6c 6f 67 6f 75 73 20 74 6f 20 63 68 65 6d 69 ion...........Analogous.to.chemi
fc60 63 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2c 20 63 68 61 cal.and.physical.properties,.cha
fc80 6e 67 65 73 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 65 20 64 69 76 69 64 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 77 nges.can.also.be.divided.into.tw
fca0 6f 20 63 61 74 65 67 6f 72 69 65 73 2e 20 49 66 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 o.categories..If.chemical.proper
fcc0 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 61 20 63 68 ties.of.a.substance.change,.a.ch
fce0 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 68 61 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 72 65 64 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 emical.change.has.occurred..Howe
fd00 76 65 72 2c 20 69 66 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 ver,.if.only.physical.properties
fd20 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 61 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 .of.a.substance.change,.a.physic
fd40 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 68 61 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 72 65 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 al.change.has.occurred..........
fd60 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 50 68 79 73 \subsubsection{Chemical.and.Phys
fd80 69 63 61 6c 20 43 68 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 43 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 ical.Changes}.........Characteri
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fdc0 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 79 20 61 20 73 75 operties.which.can.identify.a.su
fde0 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 bstance..These.can.include.color
fe00 2c 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 2f 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 2c 20 64 65 6e 73 69 74 79 ,.melting/boiling.point,.density
fe20 20 61 74 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2f 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 .at.standard.temperature/pressur
fe40 65 2c 20 6c 75 73 74 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 69 6c 69 74 79 20 6f 72 20 64 e,.luster,.and.malleability.or.d
fe60 75 63 74 69 6c 69 74 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e uctility..........\subsubsection
fe80 7b 43 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 {Characteristic.Properties}.....
fea0 20 20 20 20 49 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 ....Intensive.properties.include
fec0 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 2f 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 2c 20 64 65 6e 73 69 74 79 .boiling/melting.points,.density
fee0 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 2e 20 45 78 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 ,.and.conductivity..Extensive.pr
ff00 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 6d 61 73 73 2c 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 2c 20 61 operties.include.mass,.volume,.a
ff20 6e 64 20 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 2e 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f nd.length...........Physical.pro
ff40 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 66 75 72 74 68 65 72 20 64 69 76 69 64 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f perties.are.further.divided.into
ff60 20 74 77 6f 20 63 61 74 65 67 6f 72 69 65 73 3a 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 70 72 6f 70 .two.categories:.intensive.pprop
ff80 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 28 64 6f 65 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 erties.(does.not.change.with.the
ffa0 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 29 20 61 6e 64 20 65 78 74 65 6e .amount.of.the.sample).and.exten
ffc0 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 28 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 sive.properties.(changes.with.th
ffe0 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 29 2e 00 e.amount.of.substance.present)..
10000 61 64 00 00 f9 00 00 00 59 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 11 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 46 0e 00 00 0c 0e 00 00 ad......Y...............F.......
10020 a2 0c 00 00 80 0c 00 00 58 0c 00 00 cf 0a 00 00 ce 0a 00 00 52 08 00 00 1a 08 00 00 03 07 00 00 ........X...........R...........
10040 02 07 00 00 1e 06 00 00 fc 05 00 00 34 03 00 00 06 03 00 00 82 01 00 00 59 01 00 00 58 01 00 00 ............4...........Y...X...
10060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
100a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
100c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
100e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 ..........................\subsu
10160 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 54 72 69 70 6c 65 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 bsection{Double.and.Triple.Bonds
10180 7d 00 09 57 68 69 6c 65 20 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 69 73 }..While.a.full.valence.shell.is
101a0 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 65 .typically.always.most.stable,.e
101c0 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c lements.such.as.transition.metal
101e0 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6a 75 73 74 20 s.which.can.have.more.than.just.
10200 74 68 65 20 38 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 the.8.standard.valence.electrons
10220 2c 20 61 6e 20 65 78 70 61 6e 64 65 64 20 6f 63 74 65 74 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 65 78 70 61 6e ,.an.expanded.octet..These.expan
10240 64 65 64 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 ded.octets.have.unique.Lewis.Str
10260 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2c 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 20 63 65 6e 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f uctures,.generally.a.central.ato
10280 6d 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 74 68 65 m.without.valence.electrons.othe
102a0 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 28 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 r.than.bonding.electrons.(still.
102c0 66 69 6c 6c 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 6f 63 74 65 74 20 62 79 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 6f 74 filling.the.octet.by.making.anot
102e0 68 65 72 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 her.shell.the.new.valence.electr
10300 6f 6e 73 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 ons)...\subsubsection{Exceptions
10320 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 4f 63 74 65 74 20 52 75 6c 65 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 6f 66 .to.the.Octet.Rule}..The.name.of
10340 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 73 68 6f 77 20 76 61 6c 65 6e .the.notation.used.to.show.valen
10360 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 79 ce.electrons.are.called.Lewis.Sy
10380 6d 62 6f 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 73 79 6d mbols..These.have.a.chemical.sym
103a0 62 6f 6c 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 4e 65 24 20 6f 72 20 24 42 24 29 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 bol.(such.as.$Ne$.or.$B$).at.the
103c0 20 63 65 6e 74 65 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 64 .center.with.valence.electrons.d
103e0 72 61 77 6e 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 74 2c 20 73 70 72 65 61 64 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 76 61 rawn.around.it,.spreading.the.va
10400 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 73 20 70 6f lence.electrons.as.equally.as.po
10420 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 61 6d 6f 6e 67 73 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 64 65 73 20 28 69 66 20 74 68 61 ssible.amongst.the.sides.(if.tha
10440 74 27 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 75 6e 65 76 65 6e 20 73 69 64 t's.not.possible,.the.uneven.sid
10460 65 28 73 29 20 61 72 65 20 75 6e 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 61 6e 74 29 2e 20 54 6f 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 e(s).are.unimportant)..To.genera
10480 74 65 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 64 69 61 67 72 61 6d 2c 20 6f 6e 65 te.a.large.molecule.diagram,.one
104a0 20 64 72 61 77 73 20 61 20 22 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 2e 22 20 54 68 65 73 .draws.a."Lewis.Structure.".Thes
104c0 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 77 61 79 20 61 73 e.are.created.in.the.same.way.as
104e0 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 64 69 61 67 72 61 6d 73 20 61 .simple.covalent.bond.diagrams.a
10500 72 65 20 28 61 20 74 72 69 76 69 61 6c 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 4c 65 77 69 73 re.(a.trivial.example.of.a.Lewis
10520 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 29 2c 20 62 79 20 64 72 61 77 69 6e 67 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 6c 69 6e .Structure),.by.drawing.bond.lin
10540 65 73 20 28 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 29 es.(representing.covalent.bonds)
10560 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 4c 65 77 69 73 .between.atoms.after.their.Lewis
10580 20 53 79 6d 62 6f 6c 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 62 65 65 6e 20 6e 6f 74 65 64 2e 20 41 73 20 61 20 67 .Symbols.have.been.noted..As.a.g
105a0 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 2c 20 6c 65 66 74 6f 76 65 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 eneral.rule,.leftover.electrons.
105c0 61 72 65 20 6e 65 78 74 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 63 65 6e 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 77 68 65 are.next.to.the.central.atom.whe
105e0 6e 20 64 72 61 77 69 6e 67 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 n.drawing.Lewis.structures...\su
10600 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 7d 00 09 57 bsubsection{Lewis.Structures}..W
10620 68 65 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 73 20 6d here.electronegativity.differs.m
10640 6f 72 65 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 28 24 5c 67 65 71 20 30 2e 35 24 29 2c 20 ore.significantly.($\geq.0.5$),.
10660 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 75 6e 65 71 75 61 6c the.electrons.are.shared.unequal
10680 6c 79 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 73 2e 20 48 6f ly.and.a.polar.bond.develops..Ho
106a0 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 wever,.these.polar.bonds.are.not
106c0 20 61 73 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 61 73 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 2c 20 62 65 69 .as.strong.as.an.ionic.bond,.bei
106e0 6e 67 20 6a 75 73 74 20 61 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 62 75 69 6c 64 75 70 ng.just.a.partial.charge.buildup
10700 2e 00 00 09 49 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 ....In.all.covalent.bonds.betwee
10720 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 74 79 70 65 2c 20 74 68 n.two.atoms.of.the.same.type,.th
10740 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 69 73 20 70 72 65 63 69 73 65 6c 79 e.electronegativity.is.precisely
10760 20 65 71 75 61 6c 2c 20 73 6f 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 64 69 .equal,.so.there.is.no.charge.di
10780 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 fference.across.the.bond..This.c
107a0 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 20 22 6e 6f 6e 70 6f 6c 61 72 22 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 alled.a."nonpolar".bond..This.ca
107c0 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 61 74 6f 6d n.also.occur.with.different.atom
107e0 73 20 6f 66 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 69 65 73 s.of.similar.electronegativities
10800 20 28 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 24 5c 6c 65 71 20 30 2e 34 24 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 .(difference.$\leq.0.4$)...\subs
10820 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 71 75 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 55 6e 65 71 75 61 6c 20 53 68 61 72 ubsection{Equal.and.Unequal.Shar
10840 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 ing.of.Electrons}..The.number.of
10860 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 .valence.electrons.a.given.atom.
10880 68 61 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 61 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e has.can.be.determined.as.mention
108a0 65 64 20 69 6e 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 ed.in.earlier.lessons..This.numb
108c0 65 72 20 6f 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e er.of.valence.electrons.is.often
108e0 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 64 6f 74 73 20 73 75 72 72 6f 75 6e 64 69 6e 67 .represented.by.dots.surrounding
10900 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 77 68 65 6e 20 75 6e 62 6f 6e .the.atom,.especially.when.unbon
10920 64 65 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 6d 61 69 6e 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 ded..The.notation.remains.the.sa
10940 6d 65 20 77 68 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 2c 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 22 me.when.bonded,.except.certain."
10960 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 22 20 61 72 65 20 73 68 6f 77 6e 20 6f 6e 20 bonding.electrons".are.shown.on.
10980 74 68 65 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 73 69 64 65 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 73 20 the.shared.side.of.both.letters.
109a0 28 69 74 20 6c 6f 6f 6b 73 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 22 24 48 3a 46 24 22 29 2e 20 42 (it.looks.similar.to."$H:F$")..B
109c0 79 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 6f y.convention,.this.single.bond.o
109e0 66 20 74 77 6f 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 73 68 6f 72 74 65 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 f.two.electrons.is.shortened.to.
10a00 61 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6c 69 6e 65 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 22 24 48 2d 46 24 22 29 2e 20 a.singular.line.(like."$H-F$")..
10a20 54 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 The.other.valence.electrons.are.
10a40 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 73 20 22 6e 6f 6e 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 referred.to.as."nonbonding.elect
10a60 72 6f 6e 73 2e 22 20 54 68 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 rons.".The.bonds.which.share.the
10a80 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 73 20 22 73 .electrons.are.referred.to.as."s
10aa0 69 67 6d 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 22 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 6f 76 65 72 6c 61 70 70 igma.bonds".if.they.are.overlapp
10ac0 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 00 00 09 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 61 ing.orbitals....Covalent.bonds.a
10ae0 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 69 6e re.different.from.ionic.bonds.in
10b00 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 62 6f .that.electrons.are.a.part.of.bo
10b20 74 68 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 74 69 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 th.atoms.at.the.same.time..These
10b40 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 65 78 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 .form.exclusively.between.nonmet
10b60 61 6c 73 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 63 6f 76 als..Similar.to.ionic.bonds,.cov
10b80 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 alent.bonds.occur.because.it.is.
10ba0 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 6f 75 74 65 72 more.stable.to.have.a.full.outer
10bc0 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 6f 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2d 2d 2d 74 68 .shell.of.valence.electrons---th
10be0 65 20 6f 63 74 65 74 20 72 75 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 24 48 5f 32 24 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 e.octet.rule..The.$H_2$.molecule
10c00 2c 20 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 ,.for.example,.forms.because.the
10c20 79 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 76 69 73 75 61 6c 20 65 6c y.share.their.singular.visual.el
10c40 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ectrons.with.eachother..........
10c60 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 4f 76 65 72 6c 61 70 7d 00 \subsubsection{Orbital.Overlap}.
10c80 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 ....\subsection{Covalent.Bonding
10ca0 7d 00 09 48 69 67 68 65 72 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 6d 65 61 6e 20 }..Higher.lattice.energies.mean.
10cc0 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 that.a.given.crystal.is.more.sta
10ce0 62 6c 65 20 2d 2d 20 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 68 69 67 68 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 ble.--.causing.high.melting.and.
10d00 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 boiling.points..This.also.makes.
10d20 74 68 65 6d 20 68 61 72 64 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 20 72 65 64 75 63 65 73 20 73 6f 6c 75 62 69 them.hard,.but.it.reduces.solubi
10d40 6c 69 74 79 20 69 6e 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 2d 2d 2d 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 lity.in.water.because.---.to.dis
10d60 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 2d 2d 2d 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 solve.---.the.ionic.bonds.have.t
10d80 6f 20 62 65 20 62 72 6f 6b 65 6e 20 64 6f 77 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f o.be.broken.down..These.ionic.bo
10da0 6e 64 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 68 61 76 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 6c 6f 77 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 nds.also.have.very.low.conductiv
10dc0 69 74 79 20 61 73 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 68 69 67 ity.as.solids,.but.they.have.hig
10de0 68 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 61 73 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 6f 72 20 69 6e 20 h.conductivity.as.liquids.or.in.
10e00 61 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 a.solution...\subsubsection{Prop
10e20 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 52 65 73 75 6c 74 61 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 4c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 45 6e erties.Resultant.from.Lattice.En
10e40 65 72 67 79 7d 00 09 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6c 61 ergy}..Ionic.bonds.often.form.la
10e60 74 74 69 63 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 6c ttices.because.lattices.have.a.l
10e80 6f 77 65 72 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6c 6f 6e 65 20 ower.potential.energy.than.lone.
10ea0 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 74 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 molecules,.making.it.more.stable
10ec0 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 .and.causing.energy.to.be.releas
10ee0 65 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 2e 20 4c 61 74 74 69 ed.when.the.crystal.forms..Latti
10f00 63 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 73 20 74 68 69 73 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 ce.energy.describes.this.amount.
10f20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 4c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 of.energy..Lattice.energy.follow
10f40 73 20 61 20 66 65 77 20 74 72 65 6e 64 73 2e 20 49 74 20 69 73 20 67 72 65 61 74 65 72 20 66 6f s.a.few.trends..It.is.greater.fo
10f60 72 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 6c 69 74 68 69 75 6d 20 69 6e 20 r.small.ions.such.as.lithium.in.
10f80 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 69 73 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 73 6f 64 69 75 6d 2e 20 49 74 20 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f comparison.to.sodium..It.is.also
10fa0 20 67 72 65 61 74 65 72 20 66 6f 72 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 63 68 .greater.for.ions.with.larger.ch
10fc0 61 72 67 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 66 61 63 74 arges.because.both.of.these.fact
10fe0 6f 72 73 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 73 74 72 65 6e 67 74 68 2e 00 ors.cause.higher.bond.strength..
11000 61 64 00 00 36 08 00 00 7e 08 00 00 00 10 00 00 0b 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 60 0e 00 00 40 0e 00 00 ad..6...~...............`...@...
11020 0c 0c 00 00 0b 0c 00 00 92 09 00 00 91 09 00 00 1d 09 00 00 f7 08 00 00 8e 08 00 00 7f 08 00 00 ................................
11040 7e 08 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ~...............................
11060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
110a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
110c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
110e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
111a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
111c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
111e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11200 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11220 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11240 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11260 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11280 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
112a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
112c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
112e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11300 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11320 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11340 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11360 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11380 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
113a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
113c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
113e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11400 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11420 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11440 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11460 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11480 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
114a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
114c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
114e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11500 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11520 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11540 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11560 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11580 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
115a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
115c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
115e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11600 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11620 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11640 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11660 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11680 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
116a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
116c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
116e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11700 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11720 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11740 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11760 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11780 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
117a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
117c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
117e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11800 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11820 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11840 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11860 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 5c ...............................\
11880 65 6e 64 7b 64 6f 63 75 6d 65 6e 74 7d 00 09 56 61 6e 20 64 65 72 20 57 61 61 6c 73 20 66 6f 72 end{document}..Van.der.Waals.for
118a0 63 65 73 2c 20 75 6e 6c 69 6b 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 6f 63 63 75 ces,.unlike.hydrogen.bonds,.occu
118c0 72 20 69 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 r.in.all.atoms..These.are.the.at
118e0 74 72 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 6f 72 20 72 65 70 75 6c 73 69 76 65 20 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 tractive.or.repulsive...\subsubs
11900 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 56 61 6e 20 64 65 72 20 57 61 61 6c 73 20 46 6f 72 63 65 73 7d 00 09 54 68 ection{Van.der.Waals.Forces}..Th
11920 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 67 61 6e 69 63 20 6d ese.are.very.common.in.organic.m
11940 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 68 79 64 72 olecules.because.oxygen.and.hydr
11960 6f 67 65 6e 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 61 73 20 6d 61 6a 6f 72 20 ogen.are.often.present.as.major.
11980 62 75 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 62 6c 6f 63 6b 73 2e 00 00 09 48 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 building.blocks....Hydrogen.bond
119a0 69 6e 67 20 61 66 66 65 63 74 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 73 75 ing.affects.the.properties.of.su
119c0 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 66 66 65 63 74 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e bstances.which.affect.significan
119e0 74 6c 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 72 6f 75 67 68 6c 79 20 24 tly.because.it.is.only.roughly.$
11a00 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 31 7d 7b 31 30 7d 24 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 65 6e 67 74 68 20 6f 66 20 61 20 \frac{1}{10}$.the.strength.of.a.
11a20 72 65 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 real.bond..The.properties.which.
11a40 69 74 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 73 20 28 77 68 65 6e 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 29 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 it.creates.(when.present).includ
11a60 65 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 e.higher.melting.and.boiling.poi
11a80 6e 74 73 2c 20 68 69 67 68 20 73 75 72 66 61 63 65 20 74 65 6e 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 68 69 67 68 20 nts,.high.surface.tension,.high.
11aa0 76 69 73 63 6f 73 69 74 79 2c 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 64 20 73 6f 6c viscosity,.highly.structured.sol
11ac0 69 64 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 28 6c 65 73 73 20 64 65 6e 73 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 id.forms.(less.dense.than.liquid
11ae0 20 66 6f 72 6d 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 63 61 73 65 73 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 .form),.and.in.some.cases.(such.
11b00 61 73 20 77 61 74 65 72 29 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 69 74 79 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 69 74 as.water).polarity..This.polarit
11b20 79 20 63 61 6e 20 6c 65 61 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 63 72 6f 73 63 6f 70 69 63 20 73 6f 6c 75 62 69 y.can.lead.to.macroscopic.solubi
11b40 6c 69 74 79 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2e 20 45 74 68 61 6e 65 2c 20 61 20 6e 6f 6e 70 6f lity.properties..Ethane,.a.nonpo
11b60 6c 61 72 2c 20 6e 6f 6e 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 lar,.non.hydrogen.bonding.chemic
11b80 61 6c 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 6e 6f 6e 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 63 6f al.can.only.dissolve.nonpolar.co
11ba0 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 73 74 20 74 6f valent.substances.in.contrast.to
11bc0 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 69 6f .water.being.able.to.dissolve.io
11be0 6e 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 nic.and.polar.covalent.substance
11c00 73 20 72 65 61 64 69 6c 79 2e 00 00 09 41 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 73 20 s.readily....A.hydrogen.bond.is.
11c20 22 74 68 65 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 68 79 64 72 "the.attraction.of.a.single.hydr
11c40 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 61 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 ogen.between.a.highly.electroneg
11c60 61 74 69 76 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 65 6c ative.atom.and.another.highly.el
11c80 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 6e 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e ectronegative.atom.in.a.differen
11ca0 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 6f 72 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 72 65 67 69 6f 6e t.molecule.or.a.different.region
11cc0 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 .of.a.large.molecule..These.are.
11ce0 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 65 65 6e 20 69 6e 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f commonly.seen.in.water.because.o
11d00 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 6e f.the.strongly.electronegative.n
11d20 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 2e 20 49 74 20 70 75 6c 6c 73 20 65 6c ature.of.the.oxygen..It.pulls.el
11d40 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 77 61 79 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 2c 20 ectrons.away.from.the.hydrogen,.
11d60 63 72 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 77 creating.a.charge.differential.w
11d80 68 69 63 68 20 61 63 74 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 61 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 62 hich.acts.like.a.hydrogen.bond.b
11da0 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 etween.hydrogens.and.oxygens.of.
11dc0 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 different.molecules..Note.that.h
11de0 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e ydrogen.bonding.only.occurs.when
11e00 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 6c 79 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 74 .hydrogens.are.directly.bonded.t
11e20 6f 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 00 o.highly.electronegative.atoms..
11e40 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 48 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 7d 00 .\subsubsection{Hydrogen.Bonds}.
11e60 09 49 6e 74 72 61 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 61 72 65 2c 20 62 79 20 64 .Intramolecular.forces.are,.by.d
11e80 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 63 74 69 6e 67 20 77 69 74 68 69 6e 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 efinition,.acting.within.a.molec
11ea0 75 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 28 63 ule..These.are.chemical.bonds.(c
11ec0 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 29 2e 20 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c ovalent.and.ionic)..Intermolecul
11ee0 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 61 63 74 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 ar.forces.act.between.molecules.
11f00 69 6e 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 6f 72 20 in.a.substance,.attractively.or.
11f20 72 65 70 75 6c 73 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 61 66 66 65 63 74 20 69 6e repulsively..These.can.affect.in
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generated by cgit (git 2.34.1) at 2024-05-15 09:06:45 +0000