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ofshex dumpascii
0000 62 30 56 49 4d 20 38 2e 30 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 4b c6 1a 5d 0c e2 fb 00 c9 16 00 00 68 6f 6c 64 b0VIM.8.0.......K..]........hold
0020 65 6e 72 6f 68 72 65 72 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 enrohrer........................
0040 00 00 00 00 44 68 61 72 69 2d 52 6f 68 72 65 72 73 2d 4d 61 63 42 6f 6f 6b 2e 6c 6f 63 61 6c 00 ....Dhari-Rohrers-MacBook.local.
0060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 7e 68 6f 6c 64 65 6e 72 6f 68 72 65 72 2f 44 65 73 6b 74 6f ............~holdenrohrer/Deskto
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19c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1a80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1aa0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ac0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ae0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ba0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1bc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1be0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ca0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1cc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ce0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1da0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1dc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1de0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ea0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ec0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1ee0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f40 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f60 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1f80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1fa0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1fc0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1fe0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
2000 61 64 00 00 b1 00 00 00 f5 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 4a 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 e8 0f 00 00 cc 0f 00 00 ad..............J...............
2020 b3 0f 00 00 b2 0f 00 00 9c 0f 00 00 8f 0f 00 00 82 0f 00 00 72 0f 00 00 70 0f 00 00 6f 0f 00 00 ....................r...p...o...
2040 59 0f 00 00 58 0f 00 00 34 0f 00 00 17 0f 00 00 f1 0e 00 00 c8 0e 00 00 95 0e 00 00 4d 0e 00 00 Y...X...4...................M...
2060 1d 0e 00 00 1a 0e 00 00 19 0e 00 00 07 0e 00 00 f0 0d 00 00 e2 0d 00 00 b0 0d 00 00 75 0d 00 00 ............................u...
2080 21 0d 00 00 20 0d 00 00 1f 0d 00 00 0e 0d 00 00 0d 0d 00 00 02 0d 00 00 ea 0c 00 00 d9 0c 00 00 !...............................
20a0 d7 0c 00 00 ce 0c 00 00 cd 0c 00 00 9b 0c 00 00 5e 0c 00 00 2f 0c 00 00 b7 0b 00 00 ae 0b 00 00 ................^.../...........
20c0 c8 0a 00 00 bf 0a 00 00 21 0a 00 00 18 0a 00 00 a1 09 00 00 98 09 00 00 36 09 00 00 2d 09 00 00 ........!...............6...-...
20e0 ad 08 00 00 a4 08 00 00 84 08 00 00 6c 08 00 00 fc 07 00 00 6a 07 00 00 bf 06 00 00 26 06 00 00 ............l.......j.......&...
2100 10 06 00 00 bc 05 00 00 8a 05 00 00 1f 05 00 00 16 05 00 00 80 04 00 00 77 04 00 00 b2 03 00 00 ........................w.......
2120 87 03 00 00 1e 03 00 00 06 03 00 00 c8 02 00 00 9d 02 00 00 14 02 00 00 fe 01 00 00 f5 01 00 00 ................................
2140 f6 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
2160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
2180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
21a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
21c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
21e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 ................................
2200 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ......\end{itemize}.............
2220 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 52 65 63 6f 67 6e 69 7a 65 64 20 65 78 69 73 74 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 65 6c \item.Recognized.existence.of.el
2240 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 73 73 75 6d 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 ectrons,.but.assumed.that.positi
2260 76 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 65 72 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 73 20 74 68 65 6d 2c 20 ve.charge.counterbalances.them,.
2280 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 75 73 20 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 00 20 20 20 and.the.atom.is.thus.neutral....
22a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4f 6e 6c 79 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 20 6d 6f 64 69 66 .........\item.Only.slight.modif
22c0 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 ication.............\item.Electr
22e0 6f 6e 73 20 66 6c 6f 61 74 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 65 61 20 6f 66 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 63 ons.float.in.a.sea.of.positive.c
2300 68 61 72 67 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 harge.........\begin{itemize}...
2320 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 27 73 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 63 61 75 73 65 64 20 74 ......Thomson's.results.caused.t
2340 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 73 61 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 75 6d 20 70 75 64 64 69 6e 67 20 he.proposal.of.the.plum.pudding.
2360 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 64 20 61 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 73 75 63 model,.which.defined.a.model.suc
2380 68 20 74 68 61 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6c h.that.........\subsubsection{Pl
23a0 75 6d 20 50 75 64 64 69 6e 67 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 um.Pudding.Model}.........Electr
23c0 6f 6e 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 63 6c 65 61 72 6c 79 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 74 ons.were.clearly.smaller.than.at
23e0 6f 6d 73 2c 20 73 6f 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 oms,.so.Thomson.concluded.that.t
2400 68 65 79 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 hey.must.be.part.of.an.atom.and.
2420 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 28 atoms.have.subatomic.particles.(
2440 64 69 73 70 72 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 73 69 62 69 6c 69 disproving.Dalton's.indivisibili
2460 74 79 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 73 73 65 72 74 69 6f 6e 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 ty.of.atoms.assertion)..........
2480 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 73 74 72 65 61 6d 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 28 65 ........A.stream.of.particles.(e
24a0 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 29 20 77 61 73 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 61 20 lectrons).was.emitted.through.a.
24c0 74 75 62 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 69 74 20 72 65 61 63 68 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 6f 74 tube,.and.when.it.reached.the.ot
24e0 68 65 72 20 65 6e 64 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 74 6f 77 61 72 64 73 20 61 20 70 6f 73 69 her.end.deflected.towards.a.posi
2500 74 69 76 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 tive.electric.charge............
2520 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4a 2e 4a 2e 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 65 .......J.J..Thomson.discovered.e
2540 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 6c 61 74 65 20 31 38 30 30 73 20 77 2f 20 63 61 74 68 6f 64 65 lectron.in.late.1800s.w/.cathode
2560 20 72 61 79 20 74 75 62 65 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 28 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 .ray.tube.experiments.(electron.
2580 65 6d 69 74 74 65 72 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e emitters).........\subsubsection
25a0 7b 44 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 {Discovery.of.the.Electron}.....
25c0 20 20 20 20 4e 6f 74 65 3a 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 ....Note:.Dalton's.Atomic.Theory
25e0 20 77 61 73 20 69 6e 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6e 65 61 72 6c 79 20 65 76 65 72 .was.incomplete.like.nearly.ever
2600 79 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 y.other.theory..........\end{ite
2620 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 mize}.............\item.A.chemic
2640 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 20 72 65 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f al.reaction.is.a.rearrangement.o
2660 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 6e 65 77 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e f.the.atoms.into.new.combination
2680 73 3b 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 20 6f 72 s;.the.reaction.cannot.create.or
26a0 20 64 65 73 74 72 6f 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2c 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 72 65 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 00 20 .destroy.atoms,.only.rearrange..
26c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 ...........\item.Compounds.are.c
26e0 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 77 6f 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 omposed.of.atoms.of.two.or.more.
2700 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 66 69 78 65 64 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 3b 20 74 elements.in.fixed.proportions;.t
2720 68 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 he.ratio.of.atoms.in.a.compound.
2740 69 73 20 66 69 78 65 64 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6c 6c 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 is.fixed.for.all.samples.of.the.
2760 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 6d compound..............\item.Elem
2780 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 63 61 6c 20 61 ents.are.composed.of.identical.a
27a0 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 toms.and.these.atoms.are.unique.
27c0 74 6f 20 65 61 63 68 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 3b 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 to.each.element;.atoms.of.differ
27e0 65 6e 74 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 2e 00 20 20 20 20 ent.elements.are.different......
2800 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 73 69 ........\item.Atoms.are.indivisi
2820 62 6c 65 3b 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 ble;.atoms.are.the.smallest.comp
2840 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 20 62 onents.of.matter.and.cannot.be.b
2860 72 6f 6b 65 6e 20 64 6f 77 6e 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 roken.down..........\begin{itemi
2880 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f ze}.........Dalton's.Atomic.Theo
28a0 72 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 69 6e 20 6f 78 69 64 65 20 66 ry:..................Tin.oxide.f
28c0 6f 72 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 74 79 70 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 orms.in.two.different.types,.and
28e0 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 6f 62 73 65 72 76 65 64 20 74 68 69 73 20 62 79 20 74 65 73 74 69 6e 67 .Dalton.observed.this.by.testing
2900 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 77 68 69 63 68 .the.amount.of.oxygen.with.which
2920 20 74 69 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 72 .tin.reacts...................Pr
2940 6f 75 73 74 20 73 70 6c 69 74 20 74 69 6e 20 6f 78 69 64 65 73 20 74 6f 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 oust.split.tin.oxides.to.determi
2960 6e 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 65 64 20 74 ne.ratios,.but.Dalton.combined.t
2980 69 6e 20 2b 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 in.+.oxygen.to.measure..........
29a0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 .........Law.of.definite.proport
29c0 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 65 64 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d ions.allowed.Dalton.to.form.atom
29e0 69 63 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 28 77 68 69 63 68 20 73 75 70 70 6f 72 74 65 64 20 6c 61 77 20 6f ic.theory.(which.supported.law.o
2a00 66 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 f.definite.proportions).........
2a20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 72 6f 75 73 74 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 .........Proust.discovered.that.
2a40 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 60 60 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 64 65 compounds.follow.the.``law.of.de
2a60 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 3a 27 27 20 77 68 6f 6c 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 finite.proportions:''.whole.numb
2a80 65 72 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 73 73 65 73 20 6f ers.define.the.ratio.of.masses.o
2aa0 66 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 00 20 f.elements.found.in.a.compound..
2ac0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 31 38 30 30 73 2c 20 4a 6f 68 6e 20 44 ................In.1800s,.John.D
2ae0 61 6c 74 6f 6e 20 5c 26 20 4a 6f 73 65 70 68 20 50 72 6f 75 73 74 20 75 73 65 64 20 73 63 69 65 alton.\&.Joseph.Proust.used.scie
2b00 6e 74 69 66 69 63 20 6d 65 74 68 6f 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 73 65 61 72 63 68 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 ntific.method.to.research.the.at
2b20 6f 6d 2c 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 om,.developing.the.first.atomic.
2b40 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 28 61 6e 20 65 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 theory.(an.explanation.of.the.st
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2ba0 6c 6c 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 44 ll.particles)..................D
2bc0 65 6d 6f 63 72 69 74 75 73 20 28 47 72 65 65 6b 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 70 68 69 6c 6f 73 6f emocritus.(Greek.natural.philoso
2be0 70 68 65 72 29 20 77 61 73 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 74 6f 20 68 79 70 6f 74 68 65 73 69 7a 65 20 74 pher).was.first.to.hypothesize.t
2c00 68 65 20 65 78 69 73 74 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 2d 2d 20 6e 6f 6e 2d 73 he.existence.of.an.atom.--.non-s
2c20 63 69 65 6e 74 69 66 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 cientifically..........\subsubse
2c40 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 20 20 ction{Dalton's.Atomic.Theory}...
2c60 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 48 69 73 74 6f 72 69 63 61 6c 20 44 65 76 ..\subsection{The.Historical.Dev
2c80 65 6c 6f 70 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 5c 73 65 63 74 elopment.of.Atomic.Theory}.\sect
2ca0 69 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 50 65 72 ion{Atomic.Structure.and.the.Per
2cc0 69 6f 64 69 63 20 54 61 62 6c 65 7d 00 00 5c 6e 65 77 70 61 67 65 00 7d 00 5c 74 61 62 6c 65 6f iodic.Table}..\newpage.}.\tableo
2ce0 66 63 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 73 00 7b 5c 68 79 70 65 72 73 65 74 75 70 7b 68 69 64 65 6c 69 6e 6b 73 fcontents.{\hypersetup{hidelinks
2d00 7d 00 5c 6d 61 6b 65 74 69 74 6c 65 00 00 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 64 6f 63 75 6d 65 6e 74 7d 00 00 }.\maketitle..\begin{document}..
2d20 00 5c 72 65 6e 65 77 63 6f 6d 6d 61 6e 64 7b 5c 74 68 65 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e .\renewcommand{\thesubsubsection
2d40 7d 7b 54 6f 70 69 63 20 5c 61 72 61 62 69 63 7b 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 2e 5c 61 72 61 }{Topic.\arabic{subsection}.\ara
2d60 62 69 63 7b 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 3a 7d 00 5c 72 65 6e 65 77 63 6f 6d 6d 61 bic{subsubsection}:}.\renewcomma
2d80 6e 64 7b 5c 74 68 65 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 7b 4c 65 73 73 6f 6e 20 5c 61 72 61 62 69 nd{\thesubsection}{Lesson.\arabi
2da0 63 7b 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 3a 7d 00 5c 72 65 6e 65 77 63 6f 6d 6d 61 6e 64 7b 5c 74 c{subsection}:}.\renewcommand{\t
2dc0 68 65 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 7b 55 6e 69 74 20 5c 52 6f 6d 61 6e 7b 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 3a hesection}{Unit.\Roman{section}:
2de0 7d 00 5c 64 61 74 65 7b 5c 74 6f 64 61 79 7d 00 5c 61 75 74 68 6f 72 7b 48 6f 6c 64 65 6e 20 52 }.\date{\today}.\author{Holden.R
2e00 6f 68 72 65 72 7d 00 5c 74 69 74 6c 65 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 73 74 72 79 7d 00 00 7d 7d 00 20 20 5c ohrer}.\title{Chemistry}..}}...\
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3080 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 45 00 09 4d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 63 61 6c 20 45 6e section{Thermal.E..Mechanical.En
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30c0 6e 64 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 6f 62 6a 65 63 74 nd.potential.energy.of.an.object
30e0 2e 20 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 63 61 6c 20 45 6e ....\subsubsection{Mechanical.En
3100 65 72 67 79 7d 00 09 50 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 61 6e 79 20 65 ergy}..Potential.energy.is.any.e
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3140 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 6f 62 6a 65 63 74 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e on.of.an.object..The.most.common
3160 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 69 73 20 67 72 61 76 69 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c .form.is.gravitational.potential
3180 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 64 72 6f 70 70 69 6e 67 20 69 74 20 63 61 6e 20 .energy.because.dropping.it.can.
31a0 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 65 20 61 6e 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 6f 72 20 6c 65 73 73 65 72 20 61 6d 6f 75 generate.an.equal.or.lesser.amou
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3200 2e 20 49 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 65 6c 64 20 69 73 20 61 70 70 72 6f 78 69 6d 61 74 65 6c 79 20 ..If.the.field.is.approximately.
3220 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 24 47 5f 7b 50 45 7d 20 3d 20 6d 67 68 24 20 77 68 constant,.then.$G_{PE}.=.mgh$.wh
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3340 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 63 61 6c .to.represent.energy.such.as.cal
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3380 69 6c 6f 77 61 74 74 2d 68 6f 75 72 73 2e 20 4b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 ilowatt-hours..Kinetic.energy.is
33a0 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 73 73 6f 63 69 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 .energy.associated.with.movement
33c0 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 ..This.is.related.to.the.amount.
33e0 6f 66 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 64 6f 6e 65 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 6f 62 6a 65 63 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 of.work.done.by.an.object,.and.i
3400 74 73 20 6d 61 73 73 2f 76 65 6c 6f 63 69 74 79 2e 20 46 6f 72 6d 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 61 20 66 6f ts.mass/velocity..Formally,.a.fo
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3440 67 69 76 65 6e 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 64 6f 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 65 71 75 given.distance.does.the.work.equ
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3480 61 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 6d 75 73 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 62 65 20 67 72 65 61 74 65 72 20 a.system.must.always.be.greater.
34a0 74 68 61 6e 20 6f 72 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 64 6f 6e 65 20 64 75 65 20 74 than.or.equal.to.work.done.due.t
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34e0 20 6e 6f 6e 2d 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 76 65 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 66 72 .non-conservative.forces.like.fr
3500 69 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 42 iction..........\subsubsection{B
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3b60 61 6e 64 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 4c 65 20 and.change.in.concentration..Le.
3b80 43 68 61 74 65 6c 69 65 72 27 73 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 Chatelier's.principle.states.tha
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3bc0 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 61 74 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2c 20 74 hemical.system.at.equilibrium,.t
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3c20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 65 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d the.stress.and.a.new.equilibrium
3c40 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 62 65 20 65 73 74 61 62 6c 69 73 68 65 64 2e 20 49 6e 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 .will.be.established..In.a.chemi
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3d00 20 74 72 75 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 .true.of.any.change.in.chemical.
3d20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 3a 20 24 4b 5f 7b 65 71 7d 24 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 72 concentration:.$K_{eq}$.always.r
3d40 65 6d 61 69 6e 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 20 61 73 20 6c 6f 6e 67 20 61 73 20 6e 6f 20 6f 74 emains.constant.as.long.as.no.ot
3d60 68 65 72 20 66 65 61 74 75 72 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 76 69 72 6f 6e 6d 65 6e 74 20 her.features.of.the.environment.
3d80 76 61 72 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 61 vary..........\subsubsection{Cha
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3e40 73 20 61 72 65 20 66 61 76 6f 72 65 64 3b 20 24 4b 3e 31 24 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 20 70 72 6f 64 75 s.are.favored;.$K>1$.means.produ
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3e80 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 75 72 65 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 .solids.and.pure.liquids.do.not.
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3ec0 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 00 09 54 68 65 20 45 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 20 43 6f alculations...The.Equilibrium.Co
3ee0 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 20 69 73 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 5b 43 5d 5e 63 5b 44 5d 5e 64 7d 7b 5b 41 5d nstant.is.$\frac{[C]^c[D]^d}{[A]
3f00 5e 61 5b 42 5d 5e 62 7d 24 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 72 65 61 ^a[B]^b}$.for.the.reversible.rea
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3f40 43 20 2b 20 64 44 24 20 69 66 20 5b 4b 5d 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 C.+.dD$.if.[K].is.the.concentrat
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3fe0 6e 63 65 20 6b 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 65 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 nce.k.in.the.chemical.equation..
4000 61 64 00 00 88 02 00 00 f4 02 00 00 00 10 00 00 14 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 e0 0f 00 00 b3 0e 00 00 ad..............................
4020 7e 0e 00 00 c9 0c 00 00 9a 0c 00 00 d7 0a 00 00 a3 0a 00 00 45 09 00 00 22 09 00 00 38 08 00 00 ~...................E..."...8...
4040 22 08 00 00 fb 07 00 00 bc 06 00 00 90 06 00 00 a4 05 00 00 a6 04 00 00 71 04 00 00 40 03 00 00 ".......................q...@...
4060 23 03 00 00 f4 02 00 00 91 00 00 00 90 00 00 00 81 00 00 00 80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 #...............................
4080 00 5c 65 6e 64 7b 64 6f 63 75 6d 65 6e 74 7d 00 00 09 48 65 61 74 20 63 61 70 61 63 69 74 79 20 .\end{document}...Heat.capacity.
40a0 69 73 20 60 60 74 68 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 68 65 61 74 20 6e 65 65 64 65 64 is.``the.quantity.of.heat.needed
40c0 20 74 6f 20 72 61 69 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 .to.raise.the.temperature.of.a.g
40e0 69 76 65 6e 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 62 79 20 6f 6e iven.sample.of.a.substance.by.on
4100 65 20 64 65 67 72 65 65 20 43 65 6c 73 69 75 73 2f 4b 65 6c 76 69 6e 2e 27 27 20 54 68 69 73 20 e.degree.Celsius/Kelvin.''.This.
4120 69 73 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 64 20 69 6e 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b is.described.in.units.of.$\frac{
4140 65 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 7b 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 7d 24 20 28 65 78 3a 20 24 5c 66 72 61 energy}{temperature}$.(ex:.$\fra
4160 63 7b 4a 7d 7b 5e 7b 5c 63 69 72 63 7d 43 7d 24 20 6f 72 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 63 61 6c 7d 7b c{J}{^{\circ}C}$.or.$\frac{cal}{
4180 4b 7d 24 29 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 65 78 74 65 6e K}$)..Note.that.this.is.an.exten
41a0 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f sive.property.because.the.mass.o
41c0 66 20 61 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 69 73 20 72 65 6c 65 76 61 6e 74 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 61 20 6c f.a.sample.is.relevant.(i.e..a.l
41e0 61 72 67 65 72 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 74 61 6b 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 arger.sample.takes.more.energy.t
4200 6f 20 68 65 61 74 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 29 2e 20 53 70 65 63 o.heat.by.the.same.amount)..Spec
4220 69 66 69 63 20 68 65 61 74 20 63 61 70 61 63 69 74 79 20 28 24 43 5f 70 24 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 ific.heat.capacity.($C_p$).is.th
4240 65 20 68 65 61 74 20 63 61 70 61 63 74 69 79 20 70 65 72 20 67 72 61 6d 2c 20 73 6f 20 74 68 69 e.heat.capactiy.per.gram,.so.thi
4260 73 20 68 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 65 6e 65 72 67 79 s.has.the.units.of.$\frac{energy
4280 7d 7b 6d 61 73 73 2a 4b 7d 24 2e 20 53 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 68 65 61 74 20 63 61 6e 20 63 68 }{mass*K}$..Specific.heat.can.ch
42a0 61 6e 67 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c ange.with.temperature,.especiall
42c0 79 20 69 6e 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 69 y.in.gases..This.is.related.to.i
42e0 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 ntermolecular.forces........\sub
4300 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 48 65 61 74 20 43 61 70 61 63 69 74 subsection{Specific.Heat.Capacit
4320 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 72 79 7d 00 y}.....\subsection{Calorimetry}.
4340 09 45 78 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 63 68 65 6d .Exothermic.and.endothermic.chem
4360 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 63 72 ical.reactions.decrease.and.incr
4380 65 61 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 ease.the.potential.energy.of.the
43a0 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 65 64 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 2c 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 .involved.substances,.respective
43c0 6c 79 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 69 6e 74 61 69 ly..However,.in.order.to.maintai
43e0 6e 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 28 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 n.conservation.of.energy.(total.
4400 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 72 65 6d 61 69 6e 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 29 2c 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e energy.remains.the.same),.the.en
4420 76 69 72 6f 6e 6d 65 6e 74 20 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 20 69 74 73 20 6f vironment.either.increases.its.o
4440 77 6e 20 68 65 61 74 20 28 65 78 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 29 20 6f 72 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 wn.heat.(exothermic).or.decrease
4460 73 20 28 65 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e s.(endothermic)...\subsubsection
4480 7b 48 65 61 74 20 46 6c 6f 77 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 50 72 6f 63 65 {Heat.Flow.during.Chemical.Proce
44a0 73 73 65 73 7d 00 09 43 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 68 sses}..Conduction.is.a.type.of.h
44c0 65 61 74 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 65 73 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 20 63 eat.flow.which.involves.direct.c
44e0 6f 6e 74 61 63 74 20 6f 66 20 74 77 6f 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 ontact.of.two.substances.such.as
4500 20 61 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 73 70 6f 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 68 6f 74 20 70 6f 74 2e 20 54 68 .a.metal.spoon.and.a.hot.pot..Th
4520 69 73 2c 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 68 65 61 74 20 69 6e 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 2c 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 is,.like.heat.in.general,.tends.
4540 74 6f 77 61 72 64 73 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2c 20 22 74 61 6b 69 6e 67 22 20 65 6e towards.equilibrium,."taking".en
4560 65 72 67 79 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 66 61 73 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 ergy.from.the.fast.molecules.and
4580 20 22 67 69 76 69 6e 67 22 20 69 74 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 73 6c 6f 77 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c ."giving".it.to.the.slow.molecul
45a0 65 73 2e 00 09 48 65 61 74 20 69 73 20 22 74 68 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6b 69 es...Heat.is."the.transfer.of.ki
45c0 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 61 netic.energy.between.molecules.a
45e0 73 20 66 61 73 74 65 72 2d 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 64 s.faster-moving.molecules.collid
4600 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 73 6c 6f 77 65 72 2d 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 20 e.with.slower-moving.molecules..
4620 48 65 61 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 74 72 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 77 61 72 64 73 20 65 71 75 69 6c Heat.always.trends.towards.equil
4640 69 62 72 69 75 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 75 73 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 66 6c 6f 77 73 20 ibrium.and.thus.generally.flows.
4660 66 72 6f 6d 20 68 69 67 68 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 6f 20 6c 6f 77 20 from.high.kinetic.energy.to.low.
4680 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 kinetic.energy..........\subsubs
46a0 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 48 65 61 74 20 61 6e 64 20 43 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 54 68 65 ection{Heat.and.Conduction}..The
46c0 72 6d 61 6c 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 6b rmal.Energy.is.the.same.as.the.k
46e0 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 6f inetic.energy.of.the.molecules.o
4700 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 f.a.substance..This.is.a.propert
4720 79 20 6f 66 20 61 6c 6c 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 2e 20 54 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 y.of.all.matter..Thermal.Energy.
4740 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 can.be.measured.with.temperature
4760 2d 2d 2d 74 68 65 20 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 73 ---the.average.kinetic.energy.as
4780 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e .opposed.to.the.total.kinetic.en
47a0 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 65 6d 65 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 ergy.of.a.substance..Temeperatur
47c0 65 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 24 5e 7b 5c 63 69 72 63 e.can.be.described.with.$^{\circ
47e0 7d 46 24 2c 20 24 5e 7b 5c 63 69 72 63 7d 43 24 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 24 4b 24 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 }F$,.$^{\circ}C$,.and.$K$.......
4800 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 ...\subsubsection{Thermal.Energy
4820 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 48 65 61 74 7d 00 09 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 }.....\subsection{Heat}..Energy.
4840 63 61 6e 27 74 20 62 65 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 6f 72 20 64 65 73 74 72 6f 79 65 64 2c 20 73 can't.be.created.or.destroyed,.s
4860 6f 20 69 74 20 6d 75 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 73 6f 6d 65 77 68 65 72 65 2e 20 46 o.it.must.come.from.somewhere..F
4880 6f 72 20 68 75 6d 61 6e 20 75 73 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 65 61 72 74 68 27 73 20 69 6e 74 65 72 69 or.human.use,.the.earth's.interi
48a0 6f 72 2c 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6e 2c 20 66 6f 73 73 69 6c 20 66 75 65 6c 73 2c 20 72 61 64 69 6f or,.the.sun,.fossil.fuels,.radio
48c0 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 24 55 5e 7b 32 33 35 7d 24 29 active.elements.(like.$U^{235}$)
48e0 2c 20 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 61 69 72 2f 77 61 74 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 66 6f 6f 64 20 63 61 6e ,.moving.air/water,.and.food.can
4900 20 62 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 73 6f 75 72 63 65 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 .be.considered.sources.of.energy
4920 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 6f 75 72 63 65 73 20 6f 66 20 45 6e 65 ...\subsubsection{Sources.of.Ene
4940 72 67 79 7d 00 09 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 76 rgy}..Energy.transfer.is.the.mov
4960 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 66 6f 72 6d ement.of.energy.in.the.same.form
4980 2e 20 48 65 61 74 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 65 ..Heat.transfer.of.the.type.of.e
49a0 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 69 73 70 65 72 73 69 6e 67 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 66 69 72 65 20 69 73 20 nergy.dispersing.from.a.fire.is.
49c0 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 2e 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 6f 72 energy.transfer..Energy.transfor
49e0 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 mation,.however,.is.the.change.i
4a00 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 6e 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 n.energy.from.one.form.to.anothe
4a20 72 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 r.like.nuclear.to.thermal.energy
4a40 20 6f 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 63 61 .or.electromagnetic.to.mechanica
4a60 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 62 6f 74 68 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 l.energy..Note.that.both.follow.
4a80 74 68 65 20 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 the.law.of.conservation.of.energ
4aa0 79 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 54 72 61 6e 73 66 y...\subsubsection{Energy.Transf
4ac0 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 54 72 61 6e 73 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 er.and.Transformation}..Similar.
4ae0 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 to.the.law.of.conservation.of.ma
4b00 74 74 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e tter,.the.law.of.conservation.en
4b20 65 72 67 79 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 22 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 ergy.states.that."energy.cannot.
4b40 62 65 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 6f 72 20 64 65 73 74 72 6f 79 65 64 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 20 be.created.or.destroyed,.but.it.
4b60 63 61 6e 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 6e 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 6f 74 can.change.from.one.form.to.anot
4b80 68 65 72 2e 22 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 65 78 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 2c 20 66 her.".These.exchanges.include,.f
4ba0 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 62 75 72 6e 69 6e 67 20 67 61 73 6f 6c 69 6e 65 20 74 6f 20 or.example,.burning.gasoline.to.
4bc0 74 75 72 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 turn.chemical.energy.into.therma
4be0 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 77 6f 20 74 79 70 65 73 20 6f 66 l.energy..There.are.two.types.of
4c00 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 61 6c 6b 69 6e 67 20 61 62 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 .systems.when.talking.about.the.
4c20 65 78 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 3a 20 6f 70 65 6e 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 73 exchange.of.energy:.open.systems
4c40 20 28 63 61 6e 20 65 78 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 .(can.exchange.matter.and.energy
4c60 29 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6c 6f 73 65 64 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 73 20 28 63 61 6e 20 65 78 63 68 61 6e ).and.closed.systems.(can.exchan
4c80 67 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 29 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 ge.energy.but.not.matter)..\subs
4ca0 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 43 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 ubsection{Law.of.Conservation.of
4cc0 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 00 09 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 .Energy}..Electromagnetic.energy
4ce0 20 69 73 20 22 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 73 73 6f 63 69 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 .is."energy.associated.with.elec
4d00 74 72 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 73 2c 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 73 2c 20 61 6e tric.fields,.magnetic.fields,.an
4d20 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 22 20 54 68 d.electromagnetic.radiation.".Th
4d40 69 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 73 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 is.includes.visible.light.(such.
4d60 61 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6e 29 2c 20 58 2d 72 61 79 73 2c 20 72 61 64 69 6f 20 as.from.the.sun),.X-rays,.radio.
4d80 77 61 76 65 73 2c 20 6f 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 69 74 79 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 74 68 65 20 waves,.or.electricity.(like.the.
4da0 74 79 70 65 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 66 6c 6f 77 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 61 6e 20 6f 75 74 6c type.which.flows.through.an.outl
4dc0 65 74 29 2e 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 61 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f et)..Chemical.energy.is.a.type.o
4de0 66 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 73 74 6f 72 65 64 20 69 6e 20 63 68 65 f.potential.energy.stored.in.che
4e00 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 73 20 6f 66 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 mical.bonds..Transfers.of.chemic
4e20 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 69 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 al.energy.occur.in.chemical.reac
4e40 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 65 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 3d 20 73 74 6f 72 69 6e 67 2c 20 65 78 tions.(endothermic.=.storing,.ex
4e60 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 3d 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2e 00 09 5c othermic.=.releasing.energy)...\
4e80 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 61 6e subsubsection{Electromagnetic.an
4ea0 64 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 00 09 54 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 d.Chemical.Energy}..Thermal.ener
4ec0 67 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 73 73 6f 63 69 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 gy.is.the.energy.associated.with
4ee0 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 61 73 20 .temperature,.which.can.flow.as.
4f00 68 65 61 74 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 6d 61 73 73 20 heat..This.is.dependent.on.mass.
4f20 61 6e 64 20 61 62 73 6f 6c 75 74 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 48 65 61 74 20 69 and.absolute.temperature..Heat.i
4f40 73 20 22 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 74 20 66 6c 6f 77 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 77 61 72 6d s."energy.that.flows.from.a.warm
4f60 65 72 20 6f 62 6a 65 63 74 20 6f 72 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 74 6f 20 61 20 63 6f 6f 6c er.object.or.substance.to.a.cool
4f80 65 72 20 6f 62 6a 65 63 74 20 6f 72 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2e 22 20 48 65 61 74 20 63 6f er.object.or.substance.".Heat.co
4fa0 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 66 6c 6f 77 73 20 75 6e 74 69 6c 20 61 6c 6c 20 6f 62 6a 65 63 74 73 nstantly.flows.until.all.objects
4fc0 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 72 65 61 63 68 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2e 00 .in.a.system.reach.equilibrium..
4fe0 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 00 .\subsubsection{Thermal.Energy}.
5000 61 64 00 00 47 00 00 00 db 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 1e 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 cb 0d 00 00 9a 0d 00 00 ad..G...........................
5020 96 0c 00 00 8d 0c 00 00 5d 0c 00 00 45 0c 00 00 0b 0c 00 00 cb 0b 00 00 b5 0b 00 00 ac 0b 00 00 ........]...E...................
5040 01 0b 00 00 d7 0a 00 00 ad 0a 00 00 36 0a 00 00 2d 0a 00 00 8f 09 00 00 86 09 00 00 33 08 00 00 ............6...-...........3...
5060 f5 07 00 00 fb 05 00 00 cb 05 00 00 83 05 00 00 7a 05 00 00 e6 04 00 00 dd 04 00 00 42 04 00 00 ................z...........B...
5080 39 04 00 00 88 02 00 00 7f 02 00 00 db 00 00 00 dc 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 9...............................
50a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
50c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 ................................
50e0 20 20 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 61 6e 65 74 61 72 79 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 65 61 63 68 20 ...In.the.planetary.model,.each.
5100 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 65 6e 65 of.the.orbits.has.a.specific.ene
5120 72 67 79 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 20 68 61 76 rgy.amount.and.higher.orbits.hav
5140 65 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 2e 20 41 6c 73 6f 2c 20 61 63 63 6f 72 64 69 e.higher.energies..Also,.accordi
5160 6e 67 20 74 6f 20 74 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 27 ng.to.this.model,.electrons.can'
5180 74 20 68 61 76 65 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6e 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 28 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 t.have.internal.energy.(complete
51a0 6c 79 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 62 79 20 69 74 73 20 6f 72 62 69 74 29 2e 20 45 6c 65 ly.determined.by.its.orbit)..Ele
51c0 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6a 75 6d 70 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c ctrons.jump.between.energy.level
51e0 73 20 62 79 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 65 6d 69 74 74 69 6e 67 20 6c 69 67 68 74 s.by.absorbing.or.emitting.light
5200 2c 20 62 75 74 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 ,.but.because.there.are.a.discre
5220 74 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e te.number.of.orbits,.the.frequen
5240 63 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 28 cies.of.the.light.are.discrete.(
5260 74 68 75 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 29 2e 00 20 thus.defining.emission.lines)...
5280 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 42 75 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 66 20 ................Building.off.of.
52a0 74 68 69 73 2c 20 4e 69 65 6c 73 20 42 6f 68 72 20 28 31 39 31 35 29 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 64 20 this,.Niels.Bohr.(1915).defined.
52c0 61 20 6e 65 77 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 28 74 68 65 20 70 6c a.new.model.for.the.atom.(the.pl
52e0 61 6e 65 74 61 72 79 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 29 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 72 anetary.model).with.electrons.or
5300 62 69 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 69 6e 20 66 69 78 65 64 2c 20 64 69 73 biting.the.nucleus.in.fixed,.dis
5320 63 72 65 74 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2d 6c 65 76 65 6c 20 70 61 74 68 73 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 65 crete.energy-level.paths.(i.e..e
5340 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 65 78 69 73 74 20 69 6e 20 73 70 65 63 69 lectrons.can.only.exist.in.speci
5360 66 69 63 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 6e 6f 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 fic.orbits.and.in.no.other.locat
5380 69 6f 6e 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 77 61 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 64 69 66 69 65 64 20 ion)..This.model.was.a.modified.
53a0 76 65 72 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 52 75 74 68 65 72 66 6f 72 64 27 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 6f 66 version.of.Rutherford's.model.of
53c0 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 28 61 20 63 65 6e 74 72 61 6c 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 77 69 74 .the.atom.(a.central.nucleus.wit
53e0 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 61 6e 79 20 70 6f h.electrons.positioned.in.any.po
5400 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 2d 2d 20 6e 6f 74 sition.around.the.nucleus.--.not
5420 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .discrete.energy.levels)........
5440 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 75 72 70 72 69 73 69 6e 67 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 20 73 70 65 63 ..........Surprisingly,.the.spec
5460 74 72 61 20 77 65 72 65 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e tra.were.discrete.instead.of.con
5480 74 69 6e 75 6f 75 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 65 64 20 52 79 64 62 65 72 67 20 74 6f tinuous..This.allowed.Rydberg.to
54a0 20 65 73 74 61 62 6c 69 73 68 20 65 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6e 67 20 66 72 .establish.equations.relating.fr
54c0 65 71 75 65 6e 63 79 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 00 20 20 20 equency.and.energy.of.light.....
54e0 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 ..............An.emission.spectr
5500 75 6d 20 69 73 20 61 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 77 um.is.a.visible.light.in.which.w
5520 61 76 65 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 73 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 avelengths.of.light.emitted.by.a
5540 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 77 68 69 6c 65 20 68 65 61 74 65 64 20 73 68 6f 77 20 75 70 20 .substance.while.heated.show.up.
5560 61 73 20 62 72 69 67 68 74 2c 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 as.bright,.colored.lines........
5580 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4a 6f 68 61 6e 6e 65 73 20 52 79 64 62 65 72 67 20 73 74 75 64 ...........Johannes.Rydberg.stud
55a0 69 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 20 6f 66 20 68 65 61 74 ied.the.emission.spectra.of.heat
55c0 65 64 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f ed.metals..........\subsubsectio
55e0 6e 7b 44 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 4c 69 6e 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 n{Discrete.Emission.Lines}......
5600 20 20 20 45 69 6e 73 74 65 69 6e 20 6e 6f 74 69 63 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f ...Einstein.noticed.that.electro
5620 6e 73 20 63 61 6d 65 20 6f 66 66 20 69 6e 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 7a 65 64 20 70 61 63 6b 65 74 73 ns.came.off.in.quantized.packets
5640 20 28 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 29 2e 20 42 6f 72 72 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 4d 61 78 20 50 6c 61 6e 63 6b .(quantum)..Borrowing.Max.Planck
5660 27 73 20 69 64 65 61 20 74 68 61 74 20 76 69 62 72 61 74 69 6e 67 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 's.idea.that.vibrating.molecules
5680 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 68 61 64 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 74 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 76 61 6c 75 .only.had.energy.at.certain.valu
56a0 65 73 2c 20 68 65 20 74 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 es,.he.treated.light.particles.a
56c0 73 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 s.quantum.where.energy.is.given.
56e0 62 79 20 24 68 5c 6e 75 24 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 24 68 24 20 69 73 20 50 6c 61 6e 63 6b 27 73 20 by.$h\nu$.where.$h$.is.Planck's.
5700 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 24 5c 6e 75 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 constant.and.$\nu$.is.the.freque
5720 6e 63 79 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 65 64 20 74 68 65 ncy.of.light..This.explained.the
5740 20 63 6f 72 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 79 20 .correlation.of.light.frequency.
5760 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 71 75 61 with.electron.energy.but.not.qua
5780 6e 74 69 74 79 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 74 79 27 73 20 63 6f 72 72 ntity.and.light.intensity's.corr
57a0 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 79 20 62 elation.with.electron.quantity.b
57c0 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 77 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 72 ut.not.energy..This.was.the.star
57e0 74 20 6f 66 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 t.of.Quantum.Theory..........\su
5800 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 69 6e 73 74 65 69 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 50 68 6f bsubsection{Einstein.and.the.Pho
5820 74 6f 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 45 66 66 65 63 74 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 31 38 toelectric.Effect}.........In.18
5840 38 37 2c 20 48 65 72 74 7a 20 73 68 6f 77 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 73 68 69 6e 87,.Hertz.showed.that.light.shin
5860 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 73 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 73 20 ing.on.metal.produces.emissions.
5880 28 70 68 6f 74 6f 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 29 20 62 79 20 6b 6e 6f 63 6b 69 (photoelectric.effect).by.knocki
58a0 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 2d 2d ng.electrons.off.of.the.metal.--
58c0 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 64 69 63 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 77 61 76 65 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 6f .contradicting.the.wave.theory.o
58e0 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 20 73 68 6f 77 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 6f f.light..Thomson.showed.that.tho
5900 73 65 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f se.emitted.particles.are.electro
5920 6e 73 2e 20 48 65 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 ns..He.also.discovered.that.the.
5940 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 6e 20 66 energy.of.electrons.depends.on.f
5960 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 69 6e 74 65 6e requency.of.the.light,.not.inten
5980 73 69 74 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 6f 6d 61 73 20 59 6f sity...................Thomas.Yo
59a0 75 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 65 61 72 6c 79 20 31 38 30 30 73 2c 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 68 65 ung.in.the.early.1800s,.used.the
59c0 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 2d 73 6c 69 74 20 64 69 66 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d .double-slit.diffraction.experim
59e0 65 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 64 65 6d 6f 6e 73 74 72 61 74 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 62 65 6e 64 69 6e 67 ent.to.demonstrate.light.bending
5a00 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 63 6f 72 6e 65 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 74 65 72 66 65 72 69 6e 67 20 .around.corners.and.interfering.
5a20 6c 69 6b 65 20 61 20 77 61 76 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4e 65 like.a.wave...................Ne
5a40 77 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 31 37 30 34 2c 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 72 wton,.in.1704,.developed.the.cor
5a60 70 75 73 63 75 6c 61 72 20 28 66 72 6f 6d 20 4c 61 74 69 6e 20 66 6f 72 20 60 60 70 75 6e 79 20 puscular.(from.Latin.for.``puny.
5a80 62 6f 64 79 27 27 29 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2c 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 body'').theory.of.light,.light.a
5aa0 73 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 s.particles..........\subsubsect
5ac0 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 6f 72 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 4c 69 67 68 74 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 ion{Theories.of.Light}.....\subs
5ae0 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 4d 6f 64 65 72 6e 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d ection{The.Modern.Atomic.Theory}
5b00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 48 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 6e 20 61 74 .........He.concluded.that.an.at
5b20 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 65 6d 70 74 79 20 73 70 61 63 65 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 om.is.mostly.empty.space,.with.a
5b40 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 2c 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 2c 20 63 65 6e 74 .small,.positively.charged,.cent
5b60 72 61 6c 20 72 65 67 69 6f 6e 20 28 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 29 2c 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 ral.region.(the.nucleus),.in.whi
5b80 63 68 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 27 73 20 6d 61 73 73 20 69 73 20 63 6f ch.most.of.the.atom's.mass.is.co
5ba0 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 65 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e ncentrated...................\en
5bc0 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 20 66 d{itemize}.............\item.A.f
5be0 65 77 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 65 66 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 61 74 20 6c 61 ew.particles.are.deflected.at.la
5c00 72 67 65 20 61 6e 67 6c 65 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4d 6f 73 rge.angles.............\item.Mos
5c20 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 70 61 73 73 65 64 20 73 74 72 61 69 67 68 74 20 74 68 72 6f t.particles.passed.straight.thro
5c40 75 67 68 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 ugh..........\begin{itemize}....
5c60 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 6f 66 20 52 75 74 68 65 72 66 6f 72 64 27 73 .....The.results.of.Rutherford's
5c80 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e .experiment:..................In
5ca0 20 61 20 74 65 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 75 6d 20 70 75 64 64 69 6e 67 20 6d 6f 64 65 .a.test.of.the.plum.pudding.mode
5cc0 6c 20 62 79 20 45 72 6e 65 73 74 20 52 75 74 68 65 72 66 6f 72 64 2c 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 l.by.Ernest.Rutherford,.positive
5ce0 6c 79 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 73 68 6f 6f 74 20 6f 75 74 20 6f ly.charged.particles.shoot.out.o
5d00 66 20 61 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 67 75 6e 20 74 6f 77 61 72 64 73 20 61 20 74 68 69 6e 20 f.a.particle.gun.towards.a.thin.
5d20 73 68 65 65 74 20 6f 66 20 67 6f 6c 64 20 66 6f 69 6c 2e 20 54 68 65 6e 2c 20 72 65 66 6c 65 63 sheet.of.gold.foil..Then,.reflec
5d40 74 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 6f 72 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 70 61 73 73 69 ted.particles.or.particles.passi
5d60 6e 67 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 69 6c 20 61 72 65 20 64 65 74 65 63 74 65 64 ng.through.the.foil.are.detected
5d80 20 62 79 20 61 20 73 75 72 72 6f 75 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 73 63 72 65 65 6e 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 .by.a.surrounding.screen........
5da0 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 ..\subsubsection{Discovery.of.th
5dc0 65 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 52 6f 62 65 72 74 20 4d 69 6c 6c 69 6b e.Nucleus}.........Robert.Millik
5de0 61 6e 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 65 64 20 61 6e 20 6f 69 6c 20 64 72 6f 70 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d an.conducted.an.oil.drop.experim
5e00 65 6e 74 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 73 20 77 65 72 65 20 63 68 61 72 5c 2d 67 65 ent.where.droplets.were.char\-ge
5e20 64 20 77 2f 20 73 70 72 61 79 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 20 d.w/.spray.and.a.single.droplet.
5e40 77 61 73 20 68 65 6c 64 20 69 6e 20 6d 69 64 2d 61 69 72 2e 20 41 6c 6c 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 74 68 was.held.in.mid-air..Allowing.th
5e60 65 20 6f 69 6c 20 74 6f 20 64 72 6f 70 2c 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 63 65 20 6f 66 20 67 72 61 76 e.oil.to.drop,.the.force.of.grav
5e80 69 74 79 20 77 61 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 63 65 6c 65 72 61 ity.was.compared.to.the.accelera
5ea0 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 tion.of.the.droplet.and.the.elec
5ec0 74 72 69 63 20 66 69 65 6c 64 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 74 20 77 61 73 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 tric.field,.and.it.was.determine
5ee0 64 20 28 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f d.(because.of.the.quantization.o
5f00 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f 69 6c 20 64 72 6f 70 6c 65 74 73 20 74 6f f.charges.on.the.oil.droplets.to
5f20 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 .multiples.of.the.charge.of.an.e
5f40 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 29 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 24 31 2e lectron).that.electrons.have.$1.
5f60 36 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 31 39 7d 20 43 24 20 6f 66 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2e 20 41 70 70 6c 79 69 6e 6*10^{-19}.C$.of.charge..Applyin
5f80 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 74 6f 20 54 68 6f 6d 73 6f 6e 27 73 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 73 g.this.to.Thomson's.ratio.of.mas
5fa0 73 2d 74 6f 2d 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 24 5c 66 s-to-charge.for.an.electron,.$\f
5fc0 72 61 63 7b 31 67 7d 7b 31 2e 37 36 2a 31 30 5e 38 20 43 7d 24 2c 20 61 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 rac{1g}{1.76*10^8.C}$,.a.mass.of
5fe0 20 24 39 2e 30 39 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 38 7d 67 24 20 77 61 73 20 6f 62 74 61 69 6e 65 64 2e 00 .$9.09*10^{-28}g$.was.obtained..
6000 61 64 00 00 8f 00 00 00 5b 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 2c 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ae 0f 00 00 58 0f 00 00 ad......[.......,...........X...
6020 40 0f 00 00 c0 0e 00 00 68 0e 00 00 f3 0d 00 00 dd 0d 00 00 d4 0d 00 00 71 0c 00 00 51 0c 00 00 @.......h...............q...Q...
6040 04 0c 00 00 ce 0a 00 00 c5 0a 00 00 33 0a 00 00 fb 09 00 00 54 09 00 00 4b 09 00 00 ed 07 00 00 ............3.......T...K.......
6060 c8 07 00 00 4c 07 00 00 34 07 00 00 f1 06 00 00 be 06 00 00 91 06 00 00 40 06 00 00 0f 06 00 00 ....L...4...............@.......
6080 f9 05 00 00 ce 05 00 00 a0 05 00 00 85 04 00 00 7c 04 00 00 53 04 00 00 3b 04 00 00 f8 03 00 00 ................|...S...;.......
60a0 b5 03 00 00 5c 03 00 00 46 03 00 00 3d 03 00 00 8f 02 00 00 66 02 00 00 e6 01 00 00 dd 01 00 00 ....\...F...=.......f...........
60c0 64 01 00 00 5b 01 00 00 6a 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 d...[...j.......................
60e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
6140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 ................................
6160 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 41 4d 55 20 69 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 64 20 74 6f ............An.AMU.is.defined.to
6180 20 62 65 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 31 7d 7b 31 32 7d 24 20 6f 66 20 74 68 .be.exactly.$\frac{1}{12}$.of.th
61a0 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 24 43 5f 31 32 24 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 e.mass.of.a.$C_12$.atom,.which.i
61c0 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 24 31 2e 36 36 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 24 2e 00 20 20 20 s.equal.to.$1.66*10^{-24}g$.....
61e0 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 6d 61 73 ..............Because.atoms'.mas
6200 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 2c 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 73 74 73 20 75 73 65 ses.are.so.small,.scientists.use
6220 20 61 20 75 6e 69 74 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 6e 20 60 60 41 4d 55 27 27 20 74 6f 20 64 65 73 .a.unit.called.an.``AMU''.to.des
6240 63 72 69 62 65 20 77 65 69 67 68 74 73 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 cribe.weights.of.subatomic.parti
6260 63 6c 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f cles..........\subsubsection{Ato
6280 6d 69 63 20 4d 61 73 73 20 55 6e 69 74 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 mic.Mass.Unit}.........In.a.neut
62a0 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 5c 23 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 3d 20 5c 23 20 6f 66 20 ral.atom,.\#.of.protons.=.\#.of.
62c0 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 72 79 electrons,.but.neutrons.can.vary
62e0 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 2e 20 41 6e 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 76 .significantly..Any.atom.can.hav
6300 65 20 61 6e 79 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c e.any.number.of.these.particles,
6320 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 27 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 2e 00 20 20 20 .but.it's.not.always.stable.....
6340 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 ..............\end{itemize}.....
6360 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 3a 20 2d 31 20 63 68 61 72 67 ........\item.Electron:.-1.charg
6380 65 2c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 31 2f 31 38 30 30 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 65 6c 65 e,.mass.of.1/1800.proton,.in.ele
63a0 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 2f 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ctron.cloud/orbitals............
63c0 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 3a 20 30 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 .\item.Neutrons:.0.charge,.mass.
63e0 6f 66 20 31 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 of.1.proton,.in.nucleus.........
6400 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 50 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 3a 20 2b 31 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 6d 61 ....\item.Protons:.+1.charge,.ma
6420 73 73 20 6f 66 20 31 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 ss.of.1.proton,.in.nucleus......
6440 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 61 ...\begin{itemize}.........The.a
6460 74 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 6f 66 20 33 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 tom.is.made.of.3.particles:.....
6480 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c .............An.atom.is.the.smal
64a0 6c 65 73 74 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 74 68 61 74 lest.particle.of.an.element.that
64c0 20 68 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 .has.the.same.properties.as.the.
64e0 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 69 76 69 64 65 64 element..The.atom.can.be.divided
6500 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 70 61 72 74 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 28 74 68 .into.two.parts,.the.nucleus.(th
6520 65 20 63 65 6e 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 6f 6c 64 73 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 e.center.that.holds.protons.and.
6540 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 28 72 65 67 neutrons),.and.the.orbitals.(reg
6560 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 75 72 72 6f 75 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 77 68 65 ions.surrounding.the.nucleus.whe
6580 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 73 69 74 20 69 6e 20 60 60 63 6c 6f 75 64 73 27 27 29 00 re.electrons.sit.in.``clouds'').
65a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 41 74 6f 6d 27 ........\subsubsection{The.Atom'
65c0 73 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 s.Components}.....\subsection{Th
65e0 65 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 41 74 6f 6d 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 e.Structure.of.the.Atom}........
6600 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d .\end{itemize}.............\item
6620 20 73 74 75 64 79 69 6e 67 20 73 75 72 66 61 63 65 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 00 .studying.surfaces.of.materials.
6640 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 68 61 ............\item.identifying.ha
6660 72 6d 66 75 6c 20 62 61 63 74 65 72 69 61 20 69 6e 20 66 6f 6f 64 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 76 69 72 rmful.bacteria.in.food.and.envir
6680 6f 6e 6d 65 6e 74 61 6c 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 onmental.samples.............\it
66a0 65 6d 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 00 20 20 em.determining.chemical.bonds...
66c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 6d ..........\item.identifying.elem
66e0 65 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 ents.in.a.sample.............\it
6700 65 6d 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 79 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f em.identifying.the.composition.o
6720 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 61 72 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 f.the.sun.and.stars.........\beg
6740 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 70 65 63 74 72 6f 73 63 6f 70 79 in{itemize}.........Spectroscopy
6760 20 28 74 68 65 20 73 74 75 64 79 20 6f 66 20 61 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6d .(the.study.of.absorption.and.em
6780 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 62 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 29 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 ission.of.light.by.atoms).applie
67a0 73 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 62 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 s.these.principles.and.observati
67c0 6f 6e 73 20 62 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 ons.by:.........\subsubsection{S
67e0 70 65 63 74 72 6f 73 63 6f 70 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 pectroscopy}.........Absorption.
6800 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 45 4d 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 75 6d 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 spectra.is.an.EM.spectrum.in.whi
6820 63 68 20 77 61 76 65 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 73 20 6f 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 65 64 ch.wavelengths.of.light.absorbed
6840 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 73 68 6f 77 20 75 70 20 61 73 20 64 61 72 6b 20 6c .by.an.element.show.up.as.dark.l
6860 69 6e 65 73 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 62 61 63 6b 67 72 6f 75 ines.on.a.visible.light.backgrou
6880 6e 64 2e 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 75 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d nd..Emission.spectrum.is.the.com
68a0 70 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 2d 2d 20 62 72 69 67 68 74 6c 79 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 6c 69 6e 65 plement.--.brightly.colored.line
68c0 73 20 6f 6e 20 61 20 62 6c 61 63 6b 20 62 61 63 6b 67 72 6f 75 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 s.on.a.black.background..These.a
68e0 72 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 61 6c 6c 20 74 re.determined.to.represent.all.t
6900 68 65 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 2f 61 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 he.possible.emission/absorption.
6920 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 72 65 73 frequencies.of.a.given.atom,.res
6940 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 74 6f 6d pectively...................Atom
6960 69 63 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 6e 63 69 65 73 20 6f ic.spectra.are.the.frequencies.o
6980 66 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 74 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e f.light.at.which.atoms'.electron
69a0 73 20 60 60 6a 75 6d 70 27 27 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 s.``jump''.between.orbitals..The
69c0 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 76 69 73 69 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 20 60 60 61 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 27 27 se.are.visible.in.``absorption''
69e0 20 61 6e 64 20 60 60 65 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 27 27 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 .and.``emission''.spectra.......
6a00 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 ...\subsubsection{Absorption.and
6a20 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 53 70 65 63 74 72 61 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 .Emission.Spectra}.........This.
6a40 61 6c 73 6f 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 74 68 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f also.explains.the.quantization.o
6a60 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 75 6d 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 28 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 f.atomic.spectrum.lines.(there.a
6a80 72 65 20 61 20 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 60 60 6a 75 6d 70 73 27 27 20 re.a.finite.number.of.``jumps''.
6aa0 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 electrons.can.make.between.orbit
6ac0 61 6c 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 als)..................Electrons.
6ae0 61 72 65 6e 27 74 20 73 74 72 69 63 74 6c 79 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 73 3b 20 69 6e 73 74 65 aren't.strictly.in.orbits;.inste
6b00 61 64 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 72 65 73 74 20 69 6e 20 64 69 73 63 72 65 74 65 20 5c 65 6d 70 68 7b ad,.they.rest.in.discrete.\emph{
6b20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 7d 2c 20 6f 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 2e 20 45 6c 65 orbitals},.or.energy.levels..Ele
6b40 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 28 60 60 65 78 63 69 74 61 74 69 6f ctrons.absorb.light.(``excitatio
6b60 6e 27 27 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 29 20 61 6e 64 20 72 69 73 65 20 74 6f 20 68 69 67 68 n''.of.an.atom).and.rise.to.high
6b80 65 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 6c 79 20 66 61 er.energy.levels.and.randomly.fa
6ba0 6c 6c 20 74 6f 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 2c 20 65 6d 69 74 74 ll.to.lower.energy.levels,.emitt
6bc0 69 6e 67 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 6d 6f 64 ing.light..However,.the.Bohr.mod
6be0 65 6c 20 63 61 6e 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 73 75 66 66 69 63 69 65 6e 74 el.can.represent.this.sufficient
6c00 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 42 6f 68 72 27 ly..........\subsubsection{Bohr'
6c20 73 20 45 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 45 6d 69 73 73 69 6f 6e s.Explanation.of.Atomic.Emission
6c40 20 61 6e 64 20 41 62 73 6f 72 70 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e .and.Absorption}.....\subsection
6c60 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 53 70 65 63 74 72 61 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 65 6c 65 {Atomic.Spectra}.........The.ele
6c80 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 28 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 20 62 79 20 ctron.cloud.model.(developed.by.
6ca0 53 63 68 72 6f 64 69 6e 67 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 74 68 65 72 73 29 20 20 72 65 70 6c 61 63 65 Schrodinger.and.others)..replace
6cc0 64 20 74 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 75 72 d.the.Bohr.Model,.and.is.the.cur
6ce0 72 65 6e 74 6c 79 20 61 63 63 65 70 74 65 64 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 rently.accepted.model,.because.i
6d00 74 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 48 65 69 73 65 6e 62 65 72 67 20 55 6e 63 65 t.considered.the.Heisenberg.Unce
6d20 72 74 61 69 6e 74 79 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c rtainty.Principle..In.this.model
6d40 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6f 6e ,.electrons.are.considered.to.on
6d60 6c 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 70 72 6f 62 61 62 6c 65 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 69 ly.have.probable.locations.withi
6d80 6e 20 61 20 60 60 63 6c 6f 75 64 2c 27 27 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 73 20 73 74 n.a.``cloud,''.but.the.clouds.st
6da0 69 6c 6c 20 68 61 76 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 73 ill.have.different.energy.levels
6dc0 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 .for.the.electrons..............
6de0 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c .....\end{itemize}.............\
6e00 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 72 item.Electrons.have.a.definite.r
6e20 61 64 69 75 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 6f 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 2c 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 64 69 63 74 69 6e adius.and.momentum,.contradictin
6e40 67 20 74 68 65 20 48 65 69 73 65 6e 62 65 72 67 20 55 6e 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 74 79 20 50 72 69 g.the.Heisenberg.Uncertainty.Pri
6e60 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 54 68 65 20 6d 6f nciple..............\item.The.mo
6e80 64 65 6c 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 66 6f 72 20 48 65 6c 69 75 6d 20 6f 72 20 61 del.doesn't.work.for.Helium.or.a
6ea0 6e 79 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 6c 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 00 ny.larger.atoms'.spectral.lines.
6ec0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 49 74 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 65 78 70 ............\item.It.doesn't.exp
6ee0 6c 61 69 6e 20 68 6f 77 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 73 70 65 63 74 72 61 6c 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 20 61 72 65 lain.how.some.spectral.lines.are
6f00 20 62 72 69 67 68 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6f 74 68 65 72 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 79 20 .brighter.than.others,.and.they.
6f20 63 61 6e 20 63 6f 6d 65 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 73 00 can.come.in.groups.of.multiples.
6f40 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ........\begin{itemize}.........
6f60 54 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 61 20 6c 6f 74 20 6f 66 The.Bohr.Model.explains.a.lot.of
6f80 20 64 61 74 61 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 .data,.but.it.still.has.a.number
6fa0 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 62 6c 65 6d 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 .of.problems:.........\subsubsec
6fc0 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 62 6c 65 6d 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 42 6f 68 72 20 4d 6f 64 65 tion{Problems.with.the.Bohr.Mode
6fe0 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 43 6c 6f 75 64 20 4d 6f 64 65 6c 7d 00 l.and.the.Electron.Cloud.Model}.
7000 61 64 00 00 c4 00 00 00 94 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 2d 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 4a 0f 00 00 41 0f 00 00 ad..............-.......J...A...
7020 c9 0e 00 00 a3 0e 00 00 3c 0e 00 00 33 0e 00 00 79 0c 00 00 5c 0c 00 00 c2 0a 00 00 a1 0a 00 00 ........<...3...y...\...........
7040 e0 09 00 00 d7 09 00 00 48 09 00 00 3f 09 00 00 28 09 00 00 11 09 00 00 f5 08 00 00 c8 08 00 00 ........H...?...(...............
7060 a8 08 00 00 93 08 00 00 8a 08 00 00 e2 07 00 00 d9 07 00 00 6f 07 00 00 66 07 00 00 2b 06 00 00 ....................o...f...+...
7080 f7 05 00 00 d1 05 00 00 9a 05 00 00 82 05 00 00 f4 04 00 00 d7 04 00 00 bb 04 00 00 2a 04 00 00 ............................*...
70a0 97 03 00 00 7d 03 00 00 67 03 00 00 5e 03 00 00 4e 02 00 00 36 02 00 00 0f 02 00 00 ec 01 00 00 ....}...g...^...N...6...........
70c0 ca 01 00 00 b4 01 00 00 94 01 00 00 93 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
70e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
7100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
7120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
7140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
7160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
7180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 ............................\sub
71a0 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 46 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 subsection{Fission}.........\end
71c0 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 50 72 6f 74 {itemize}.............\item.Prot
71e0 6f 6e 3a 20 24 5e 31 5f 31 70 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4e 65 on:.$^1_1p$.............\item.Ne
7200 75 74 72 6f 6e 3a 20 24 5e 31 5f 30 6e 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d utron:.$^1_0n$.............\item
7220 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 3a 20 24 5e 30 5f 7b 2d 31 7d 65 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 .Electron:.$^0_{-1}e$.........\b
7240 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 6e 75 63 egin{itemize}.........In.all.nuc
7260 6c 65 61 72 20 28 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 63 61 79 lear.(fission,.fusion,.and.decay
7280 29 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 6d 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 ).reactions,.the.total.mass.and.
72a0 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 29 20 73 74 total.atomic.number.(protons).st
72c0 61 79 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6c 67 ay.the.same..This.allows.for.alg
72e0 65 62 72 61 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 ebraic.completion.of.any.nuclear
7300 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 .reaction..Note.that.this.includ
7320 65 73 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 es.subatomic.particles,.with.the
7340 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 3a 00 20 20 .respective.nuclear.formulae:...
7360 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 ...............\end{itemize}....
7380 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .........\end{itemize}..........
73a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 42 65 74 61 2d 6d 69 6e 75 73 20 64 65 63 61 79 3a 20 41 .......\item.Beta-minus.decay:.A
73c0 20 70 61 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 .parent.nucleus.neutron.becomes.
73e0 61 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 2c 20 65 6d 69 74 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 a.proton,.emitting.an.electron..
7400 4d 61 73 73 20 73 74 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 2b 31 20 61 74 6f 6d Mass.stays.the.same,.and.+1.atom
7420 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 ic.number.................\item.
7440 42 65 74 61 2d 70 6c 75 73 20 64 65 63 61 79 3a 20 41 20 70 61 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 Beta-plus.decay:.A.parent.nucleu
7460 73 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 65 6d 69 74 s.proton.becomes.a.neutron,.emit
7480 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 70 6f 73 69 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 4d 61 73 73 20 73 74 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 ting.a.positron..Mass.stays.the.
74a0 73 61 6d 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 2d 31 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 00 20 20 20 20 20 same,.and.-1.atomic.number......
74c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .......\begin{itemize}..........
74e0 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 42 65 74 61 20 64 65 63 61 79 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ...\item.Beta.decay.............
7500 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 6c 70 68 61 20 44 65 63 61 79 3a 20 41 20 70 61 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c \item.Alpha.Decay:.A.parent.nucl
7520 65 75 73 20 65 6d 69 74 73 20 61 6e 20 48 65 34 20 28 61 6c 70 68 61 29 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c eus.emits.an.He4.(alpha).particl
7540 65 2c 20 6c 6f 73 69 6e 67 20 32 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 32 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f e,.losing.2.protons.and.2.neutro
7560 6e 73 2e 20 2d 32 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 2d 34 20 6d 61 73 73 ns..-2.atomic.number.and.-4.mass
7580 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 ..........\begin{itemize}.......
75a0 20 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 77 6f 20 6d 61 69 6e 20 74 79 70 65 73 20 6f 66 20 72 61 ..There.are.two.main.types.of.ra
75c0 64 69 6f 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 64 65 63 61 79 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 dioactive.decay:.........\subsub
75e0 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 44 65 63 61 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 section{Nuclear.Decay}.....\subs
7600 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 46 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 ection{Nuclear.Fission.and.Nucle
7620 61 72 20 46 75 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 ar.Fusion}.........The.mass.numb
7640 65 72 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 77 65 er.on.the.periodic.table.is.a.we
7660 69 67 68 74 65 64 20 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 28 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 62 75 6e 64 61 6e 63 65 20 6f ighted.average.(from.abundance.o
7680 66 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 29 20 6f 66 20 61 76 61 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 f.isotopes).of.available.isotope
76a0 73 20 69 6e 20 6e 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 43 6c 2d 33 35 20 s.in.nature..For.example,.Cl-35.
76c0 28 24 33 35 61 6d 75 24 29 20 73 68 6f 77 73 20 75 70 20 69 6e 20 6e 61 74 75 72 65 20 24 37 35 ($35amu$).shows.up.in.nature.$75
76e0 2e 37 38 5c 25 24 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 69 6d 65 20 61 6e 64 20 43 6c 2d 33 37 20 28 24 33 .78\%$.of.the.time.and.Cl-37.($3
7700 37 61 6d 75 24 29 20 73 68 6f 77 73 20 75 70 20 24 32 34 2e 32 32 5c 25 24 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 7amu$).shows.up.$24.22\%$.of.the
7720 20 74 69 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 65 20 .time..The.average.is.therefore.
7740 24 33 35 28 37 35 2e 37 38 5c 25 29 2b 33 37 28 32 34 2e 32 32 29 5c 73 69 6d 65 71 33 35 2e 34 $35(75.78\%)+37(24.22)\simeq35.4
7760 35 61 6d 75 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 72 65 20 61 74 6f 5amu$..................Where.ato
7780 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 5a 29 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 mic.number.(Z).and.mass.number.(
77a0 41 29 20 61 72 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6e 65 75 74 A).are.known,.the.number.of.neut
77c0 72 6f 6e 73 20 28 4e 29 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 24 4e 3d 41 2d 5a 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 rons.(N).follows.$N=A-Z$........
77e0 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 66 20 62 6f 74 68 20 4d 61 73 73 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 61 6e ..........If.both.Mass.Number.an
7800 64 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 65 d.Atomic.Number.must.be.displaye
7820 64 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 65 64 20 77 69 74 d,.the.mass.can.be.displayed.wit
7840 68 20 61 20 73 75 70 65 72 73 63 72 69 70 74 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 77 h.a.superscript.and.the.atomic.w
7860 2f 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 63 72 69 70 74 20 28 46 69 67 75 72 65 20 5c 72 65 66 7b 66 69 67 3a 69 /.a.subscript.(Figure.\ref{fig:i
7880 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 7d 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b sotope})...................\end{
78a0 66 69 67 75 72 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 6c 61 62 65 6c 7b 66 69 67 3a 69 figure}.............\label{fig:i
78c0 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 63 61 70 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 73 6f sotope}.............\caption{Iso
78e0 74 6f 70 65 20 52 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 tope.Representation}............
7900 20 24 5f 7b 31 33 7d 20 5e 7b 32 37 7d 24 41 6c 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 63 65 .$_{13}.^{27}$Al.............\ce
7920 6e 74 65 72 69 6e 67 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 66 69 67 75 72 65 7d 00 20 ntering.........\begin{figure}..
7940 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 ................There.are.severa
7960 6c 20 77 61 79 73 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 69 74 20 28 61 6c 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 l.ways.to.represent.it.(all.of.t
7980 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 hese.are.an.aluminum.atom.with.a
79a0 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 32 37 29 3a 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 2d 32 37 .mass.number.of.27):.aluminum-27
79c0 2c 20 41 6c 2d 32 37 2c 20 6f 72 20 24 5e 7b 32 37 7d 24 41 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 ,.Al-27,.or.$^{27}$Al...........
79e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 61 73 73 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 41 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6e ........Mass.Number.(A).is.the.n
7a00 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e umber.of.protons.and.neutrons.in
7a20 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 72 79 20 66 72 6f .a.given.atom..This.can.vary.fro
7a40 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 74 6f 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 m.atom.to.atom.of.the.same.eleme
7a60 6e 74 2e 20 41 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 6e nt..Atoms.of.the.same.element.an
7a80 64 20 73 61 6d 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 61 72 65 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 2e d.same.mass.number.are.isotopes.
7aa0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 73 .........\subsubsection{Isotopes
7ac0 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e }.........The.number.of.electron
7ae0 73 2c 20 75 6e 6c 69 6b 65 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 63 61 6e 20 76 61 72 79 20 62 65 74 77 s,.unlike.protons,.can.vary.betw
7b00 65 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 54 een.atoms.of.the.same.element..T
7b20 68 65 73 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 64 20 69 hese.amounts.are.often.changed.i
7b40 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c n.chemical.reactions..For.exampl
7b60 65 2c 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 20 67 61 69 6e 20 6f 72 20 6c 6f 73 65 20 73 e,.aluminum.could.gain.or.lose.s
7b80 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 72 65 6d 61 69 everal.electrons.and.still.remai
7ba0 6e 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 69 74 20 61 n.aluminum..This.would.make.it.a
7bc0 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 n.ion,.and.dependent.on.the.numb
7be0 65 72 20 67 61 69 6e 65 64 20 6f 72 20 6c 6f 73 74 2c 20 69 74 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 65 63 6f er.gained.or.lost,.it.would.beco
7c00 6d 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 6f 72 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 6c 79 me.more.negatively.or.positively
7c20 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 64 20 28 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 .charged.(respectively.because.e
7c40 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 2d 31 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 lectrons.have.a.-1.charge)......
7c60 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ....\subsubsection{Ions}........
7c80 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 6c 6c 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 63 61 6e 20 63 .However,.not.all.elements.can.c
7ca0 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 61 6e 79 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 ontain.any.number.of.subatomic.p
7cc0 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 20 49 6e 20 66 61 63 74 2c 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 articles..In.fact,.all.atoms.of.
7ce0 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 73 74 72 69 63 74 65 64 20 74 a.given.element.are.restricted.t
7d00 6f 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 28 5a 29 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f o.their.atomic.number.(Z).of.pro
7d20 74 6f 6e 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 20 68 61 73 20 tons..For.example,.aluminum.has.
7d40 61 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 31 33 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 66 6f 72 an.atomic.number.of.13,.therefor
7d60 65 20 69 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 68 61 73 20 31 33 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 79 20 64 e.it.always.has.13.protons,.by.d
7d80 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 41 6c 73 6f 2c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 69 73 20 70 72 efinition..Also,.because.this.pr
7da0 6f 70 65 72 74 79 20 69 73 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 operty.is.unique.to.an.element,.
7dc0 6e 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 no.two.elements.share.the.same.a
7de0 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2f 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2e 20 tomic.number/number.of.protons..
7e00 4f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 On.the.periodic.table,.these.inc
7e20 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 6c 6f 6e 67 20 61 20 72 6f 77 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 rease.along.a.row...............
7e40 20 20 20 20 41 73 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 63 61 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 61 6e 79 ....As.all.atoms.can.contain.any
7e60 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 28 .number.of.subatomic.particles.(
7e80 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 neutrons,.protons,.and.electrons
7ea0 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 )..........\subsubsection{Atomic
7ec0 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4e 6f 74 61 62 6c 79 2c 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e .Number}.........Notably,.proton
7ee0 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 s.and.neutrons.are.not.the.most.
7f00 62 61 73 69 63 20 73 75 62 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 79 20 61 basic.subatomic.particle..They.a
7f20 72 65 2c 20 69 6e 20 74 75 72 6e 2c 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 71 75 61 72 6b 73 2e re,.in.turn,.composed.of.quarks.
7f40 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 ..................The.mass.of.a.
7f60 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 24 31 2e 36 37 33 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 5c 73 69 6d 31 20 proton.is.$1.673*10^{-24}g\sim1.
7f80 61 6d 75 2e 24 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 24 amu.$.The.mass.of.a.neutron.is.$
7fa0 31 2e 36 37 35 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 5c 73 69 6d 31 61 6d 75 24 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6d 61 1.675*10^{-24}g\sim1amu$..The.ma
7fc0 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 69 73 20 24 ss.of.an.electron,.however,.is.$
7fe0 39 2e 31 30 39 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 38 7d 67 5c 73 69 6d 30 2e 30 30 30 36 20 61 6d 75 24 2e 00 9.109*10^{-28}g\sim0.0006.amu$..
8000 61 64 00 00 5e 00 00 00 d6 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 17 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 5f 0e 00 00 56 0e 00 00 ad..^..................._...V...
8020 37 0c 00 00 2e 0c 00 00 cc 0b 00 00 ad 0b 00 00 ac 09 00 00 a3 09 00 00 85 08 00 00 61 08 00 00 7...........................a...
8040 4e 07 00 00 45 07 00 00 5b 05 00 00 28 05 00 00 e8 04 00 00 cd 03 00 00 9c 03 00 00 6f 02 00 00 N...E...[...(...............o...
8060 66 02 00 00 83 01 00 00 7a 01 00 00 df 00 00 00 d6 00 00 00 d7 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 f.......z.......................
8080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
80a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
80c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 ................................
80e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 70 75 72 .......Compounds.are.another.pur
8100 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 2d 2d 20 73 6f 6c 65 6c 79 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f e.substance.--.solely.composed.o
8120 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 2d 2d 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 74 61 62 6c 65 20 f.one.molecule.--.such.as.table.
8140 73 61 6c 74 20 28 24 4e 61 43 6c 24 29 2c 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 61 20 28 24 4e 48 5f 33 24 29 2c salt.($NaCl$),.ammonia.($NH_3$),
8160 20 77 61 74 65 72 2c 20 65 6d 65 72 61 6c 64 2c 20 6f 72 20 72 75 73 74 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 .water,.emerald,.or.rust........
8180 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 70 75 72 65 20 73 ...........Elements.are.a.pure.s
81a0 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 73 75 63 ubstance.of.one.type.of.atom.suc
81c0 68 20 61 73 20 48 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 2c 20 48 65 6c 69 75 6d 2c 20 4f 78 79 67 65 6e 2c 20 43 h.as.Hydrogen,.Helium,.Oxygen,.C
81e0 61 72 62 6f 6e 2c 20 49 72 6f 6e 2c 20 6f 72 20 43 68 6c 6f 72 69 6e 65 2e 20 4f 78 79 67 65 6e arbon,.Iron,.or.Chlorine..Oxygen
8200 27 73 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 's.most.stable.forms.are.molecul
8220 61 72 20 28 24 4f 5f 32 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 4f 5f 33 24 29 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 ar.($O_2$.and.$O_3$),.but.this.i
8240 73 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 61 6c 20 s.still.considered.an.elemental.
8260 66 6f 72 6d 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6c 6c 20 6d 61 74 74 65 form...................All.matte
8280 72 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 65 64 20 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 61 20 70 75 72 65 20 73 75 r.is.considered.either.a.pure.su
82a0 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 28 61 6e 79 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 bstance.(any.matter.that.cannot.
82c0 62 65 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 72 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f be.decomposed.into.simpler.compo
82e0 6e 65 6e 74 73 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 29 nents.without.a.chemical.change)
8300 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 6f 72 20 73 61 6c 74 20 6f 72 20 61 20 6d 69 78 74 .such.as.water.or.salt.or.a.mixt
8320 75 72 65 20 28 61 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 77 6f 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 ure.(a.combination.of.two.or.mor
8340 65 20 70 75 72 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 e.pure.substances.that.are.not.c
8360 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 65 64 29 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 73 61 6c 74 hemically.combined).such.as.salt
8380 20 77 61 74 65 72 2c 20 74 65 61 2c 20 73 74 65 65 6c 2c 20 6f 72 20 61 69 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 .water,.tea,.steel,.or.air......
83a0 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6c 61 73 73 69 66 69 63 61 74 69 6f ....\subsubsection{Classificatio
83c0 6e 20 6f 66 20 4d 61 74 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 n.of.Matter}.........Physical.pr
83e0 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 65 operties.of.a.substance.can.be.e
8400 78 61 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 63 68 61 6e 67 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 65 xamined.without.changing.the.che
8420 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 mical.structure.of.the.substance
8440 2e 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2c 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f 74 ..Chemical.properties,.on.the.ot
8460 68 65 72 20 68 61 6e 64 2c 20 63 61 6e 6e 6f 74 20 62 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 her.hand,.cannot.be..This.is.the
8480 20 73 6f 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 2e 20 50 .sole.and.singular.difference..P
84a0 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 2f 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 hysical/chemical.changes.are.the
84c0 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 6f 66 20 73 75 63 68 20 70 72 6f 70 .respective.changes.of.such.prop
84e0 65 72 74 69 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 erties..........\subsubsection{P
8500 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 76 73 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2f 43 hysical.vs.Chemical.Properties/C
8520 68 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 hanges}.....\subsection{Elements
8540 2c 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 4d 69 78 74 75 72 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 ,.Compounds,.and.Mixtures}......
8560 20 20 20 53 61 64 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 6f 76 65 72 73 69 61 6c 20 ...Sadly,.this.is.controversial.
8580 61 6e 64 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 73 74 73 20 74 68 69 6e 6b 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 and.most.scientists.think.that.c
85a0 6f 6c 64 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 old.fusion.isn't.possible..This.
85c0 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 6f 76 65 72 73 69 61 6c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 is.controversial.because.there.i
85e0 73 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 65 61 6d 20 63 6c 61 69 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 61 62 69 6c 69 74 79 20 s.one.team.claiming.the.ability.
8600 74 6f 20 70 65 72 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 79 to.perform.cold.fusion,.but.they
8620 20 6e 65 67 6c 65 63 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 20 68 65 6c 69 75 6d 2c 20 74 68 .neglected.to.measure.helium,.th
8640 65 69 72 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 77 eir.neutron.production.results.w
8660 65 72 65 20 69 6e 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 78 70 65 63 74 65 64 20 6e ere.inconsistent.with.expected.n
8680 75 6d 62 65 72 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 69 6d umbers,.and.the.results.of.a.sim
86a0 69 6c 61 72 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 6f 6e 66 6c 69 63 74 69 6e 67 ilar.experiment.with.conflicting
86c0 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 73 20 77 61 73 20 63 6f .and.inconclusive.results.was.co
86e0 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 69 67 6e 6f 72 65 64 2e 20 46 6f 72 65 6d 6f 73 74 2c 20 74 68 65 79 mpletely.ignored..Foremost,.they
8700 20 64 69 64 6e 27 74 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 66 69 63 20 63 6f 6d .didn't.allow.the.scientific.com
8720 6d 75 6e 69 74 79 20 74 6f 20 70 65 65 72 20 72 65 76 69 65 77 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 72 65 73 75 munity.to.peer.review.their.resu
8740 6c 74 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 20 lts...................This.is.a.
8760 68 79 70 6f 74 68 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 73 6d 20 77 68 hypothetical.fusion.mechanism.wh
8780 69 63 68 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 68 61 76 65 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 ich.would.have.lower.activation.
87a0 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 22 68 6f 74 22 20 66 energies.than.a.standard."hot".f
87c0 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 72 6f 75 67 68 6c 79 20 72 6f 6f 6d 20 74 65 6d usion.reaction.(roughly.room.tem
87e0 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 68 79 70 6f 74 68 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 70 61 74 68 perature)..The.hypothetical.path
8800 77 61 79 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 65 73 20 64 65 75 74 65 72 69 75 6d 20 28 48 2d 32 29 20 77 61 74 way.involves.deuterium.(H-2).wat
8820 65 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 70 61 6c 6c 61 64 69 75 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 70 6c 61 74 69 6e 75 6d 2e 20 er.with.palladium.and.platinum..
8840 49 74 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 20 6d 69 6e 69 6d 61 6c 20 77 61 73 74 65 2e 20 It.would.produce.minimal.waste..
8860 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6f 6c 64 20 46 75 73 .........\subsubsection{Cold.Fus
8880 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 ion}.........A.common.fusion.pat
88a0 68 77 61 79 20 69 6e 20 73 74 61 72 73 20 28 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 75 72 20 73 75 6e hway.in.stars.(including.our.sun
88c0 29 20 69 73 20 24 5e 32 48 2b 5e 33 48 5c 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 5e 35 48 65 5c 72 69 67 ).is.$^2H+^3H\rightarrow^5He\rig
88e0 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 31 37 2e 36 4d 65 56 2b 5e 34 48 65 2b 6e 24 2e 20 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 htarrow17.6MeV+^4He+n$..Another.
8900 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 43 61 72 62 6f 6e 2d 4f 78 79 common.pathway.is.the.Carbon-Oxy
8920 67 65 6e 2d 4e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 63 79 63 6c 65 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 75 73 65 73 20 74 gen-Nitrogen.cycle,.which.uses.t
8940 68 6f 73 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 74 6f 20 74 75 72 6e 20 34 20 69 6e 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 hose.atoms.to.turn.4.independent
8960 20 70 72 6f 74 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 61 20 24 5e 34 48 65 24 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 61 .protons.into.a.$^4He$.nucleus.a
8980 6e 64 20 61 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 nd.a.significant.amount.of.energ
89a0 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 22 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 75 73 y..................."Nuclear.fus
89c0 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 6c 69 67 68 ion.is.the.process.in.which.ligh
89e0 74 65 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 65 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 ter.atomic.nuclei.combine.to.for
8a00 6d 20 61 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 68 65 61 76 69 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 2c m.a.more.stable.heavier.nucleus,
8a20 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 20 6f 66 20 67 72 65 .resulting.in.the.release.of.gre
8a40 61 74 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 22 20 49 66 20 68 75 6d 61 6e 73 at.amounts.of.energy.".If.humans
8a60 20 77 65 72 65 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 68 61 72 6e 65 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 77 65 72 20 .were.able.to.harness.the.power.
8a80 6f 66 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 of.fusion.reactions,.then.these.
8aa0 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 would.be.very.useful.because.the
8ac0 79 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 20 6e 6f 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 77 61 73 74 65 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 y.produce.no.nuclear.waste..Howe
8ae0 76 65 72 2c 20 77 65 20 63 61 6e 27 74 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 72 65 71 75 69 ver,.we.can't.because.they.requi
8b00 72 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 68 69 67 68 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 re.very.high.activation.energies
8b20 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 6d 65 6e 74 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 20 63 61 6e 27 ,.and.containment.materials.can'
8b40 74 20 77 69 74 68 73 74 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6c 6f 6e 67 2d 74 65 t.withstand.the.reaction.long-te
8b60 72 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 77 68 79 20 74 68 65 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 6c rm..This.is.why.the.only.known.l
8b80 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 66 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 77 ocation.of.fusion.reactions.is.w
8ba0 69 74 68 69 6e 20 73 74 61 72 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 ithin.stars..........\subsubsect
8bc0 69 6f 6e 7b 46 75 73 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 66 69 73 73 ion{Fusion}.........Example.fiss
8be0 69 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 3a 20 24 5e 7b 32 33 35 7d 5f 7b 39 32 7d 55 2b 5e 31 5f 30 6e ion.pathway:.$^{235}_{92}U+^1_0n
8c00 5c 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 5e 7b 39 34 7d 5f 7b 33 38 7d 53 72 2b 5e 7b 31 34 30 7d 5f 7b \rightarrow^{94}_{38}Sr+^{140}_{
8c20 35 34 7d 58 65 2b 32 5e 31 5f 30 6e 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 54}Xe+2^1_0n$..................T
8c40 68 69 73 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 63 6c 65 61 6e 20 65 6e 65 his.isn't.a.completely.clean.ene
8c60 72 67 79 20 73 6f 75 72 63 65 2c 20 68 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2e 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 65 6e 65 rgy.source,.however..Nuclear.ene
8c80 72 67 79 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 65 73 27 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 72 6f rgy.processes'.large.fission.pro
8ca0 64 75 63 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 61 64 69 6f 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 61 73 74 65 20 77 68 69 63 ducts.are.radioactive.waste.whic
8cc0 68 20 6e 65 65 64 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 73 74 6f 72 65 64 20 66 61 72 20 61 77 61 79 20 66 72 h.needs.to.be.stored.far.away.fr
8ce0 6f 6d 20 68 75 6d 61 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 6e 61 74 75 72 om.humans..These.can.occur.natur
8d00 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 65 78 70 6c 6f ally,.but.they.don't.occur.explo
8d20 73 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 49 6e 20 6d 61 6e 2d 6d 61 64 65 20 70 6f 77 65 72 20 70 6c 61 6e 74 73 sively..In.man-made.power.plants
8d40 20 6f 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 62 6f 6d 62 73 2c 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 .or.nuclear.bombs,.fission.react
8d60 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 65 6c 66 2d 73 75 73 74 61 69 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 6f 75 ions.self-sustain.because.the.ou
8d80 74 70 75 74 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 6e 65 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 tput.neutrons.from.one.fission.r
8da0 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 72 69 67 67 65 72 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 eaction.trigger.more.fission.rea
8dc0 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 65 6c ctions..These.reactions.only.sel
8de0 66 2d 73 75 73 74 61 69 6e 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 f-sustain.if.the.mass.of.the.rea
8e00 63 74 69 76 65 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 20 69 73 20 61 74 20 6f 72 20 61 62 6f 76 65 20 63 72 ctive.material.is.at.or.above.cr
8e20 69 74 69 63 61 6c 20 6d 61 73 73 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 itical.mass,.which.is.different.
8e40 66 6f 72 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 for.different.nuclei............
8e60 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 60 60 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 .......``Nuclear.fission.is.the.
8e80 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 20 68 65 61 76 79 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 process.in.which.a.heavy.nucleus
8ea0 20 69 73 20 73 70 6c 69 74 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 66 72 61 67 6d 65 6e .is.split.into.two.large.fragmen
8ec0 74 73 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 61 62 6c 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6d 6f ts.of.comparable.mass.to.form.mo
8ee0 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 2c 20 72 65 re.stable.and.smaller.nuclei,.re
8f00 73 75 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 20 6f 66 20 67 72 65 61 74 20 sulting.in.the.release.of.great.
8f20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 27 27 20 4e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 66 69 73 amounts.of.energy.''.Nuclear.fis
8f40 73 69 6f 6e 20 77 6f 72 6b 73 20 62 79 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 20 68 69 74 74 69 6e 67 20 sion.works.by.a.neutron.hitting.
8f60 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 74 20 69 6e a.large.nucleus.and.making.it.in
8f80 74 6f 20 61 6e 20 75 6e 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 2e 20 54 68 65 6e 2c 20 74 68 to.an.unstable.isotope..Then,.th
8fa0 65 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 69 73 6f 74 6f 70 65 20 71 75 69 63 6b 6c 79 20 64 65 63 61 e.resulting.isotope.quickly.deca
8fc0 79 73 20 74 6f 20 66 69 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2c 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 ys.to.fission.products,.a.large.
8fe0 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 65 75 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 00 amount.of.energy,.and.neutrons..
9000 61 64 00 00 f8 00 00 00 bc 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 2a 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 e3 0e 00 00 b4 0e 00 00 ad..............*...............
9020 1d 0e 00 00 05 0e 00 00 a9 0d 00 00 23 0d 00 00 96 0c 00 00 91 0b 00 00 7b 0b 00 00 72 0b 00 00 ............#...........{...r...
9040 ee 0a 00 00 b2 0a 00 00 8a 0a 00 00 02 09 00 00 eb 08 00 00 c6 08 00 00 b3 08 00 00 7e 08 00 00 ............................~...
9060 49 08 00 00 0a 08 00 00 d4 07 00 00 be 07 00 00 a9 07 00 00 71 07 00 00 cf 05 00 00 c6 05 00 00 I...................q...........
9080 f6 04 00 00 ed 04 00 00 01 04 00 00 ea 03 00 00 cb 03 00 00 b8 03 00 00 95 03 00 00 79 03 00 00 ............................y...
90a0 5d 03 00 00 41 03 00 00 25 03 00 00 0f 03 00 00 fa 02 00 00 c4 02 00 00 c5 01 00 00 bc 01 00 00 ]...A...%.......................
90c0 bb 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
90e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
9100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
9120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
9140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
9160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
9180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
91a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 ................................
91c0 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6d 65 63 68 61 6e 69 63 73 20 64 .............Quantum.mechanics.d
91e0 69 63 74 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 6e 6f 20 74 77 6f 20 66 65 72 6d 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 66 6f ictates.that.no.two.fermions.(fo
9200 72 20 6f 75 72 20 63 61 73 65 73 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 29 20 63 61 6e 20 73 68 61 72 r.our.cases,.electrons).can.shar
9220 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 e.the.same.quantum.numbers.(the.
9240 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 73 20 6f 66 only.defining.characteristics.of
9260 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 66 65 72 6d 69 6f 6e 29 2c 20 73 6f 20 61 6e 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 .a.given.fermion),.so.any.given.
9280 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 2c 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 2c 20 6f 72 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 63 61 6e 20 orbital,.subshell,.or.shell.can.
92a0 68 6f 6c 64 20 61 20 66 69 6e 69 74 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e hold.a.finite.number.of.electron
92c0 73 2e 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 50 s...........\subsubsection{The.P
92e0 61 75 6c 69 20 45 78 63 6c 75 73 69 6f 6e 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 auli.Exclusion.Principle}.......
9300 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 74 61 62 75 ..\end{center}.........\end{tabu
9320 6c 61 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 33 20 26 20 66 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 lar}.............3.&.f.\\.\hline
9340 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 32 20 26 20 64 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 .............2.&.d.\\.\hline....
9360 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 31 20 26 20 70 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .........1.&.p.\\.\hline........
9380 20 20 20 20 20 30 20 26 20 73 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .....0.&.s.\\.\hline............
93a0 20 24 6c 24 20 26 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .$l$.&.letter.\\.\hline.........
93c0 20 20 20 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 ....\hline.........\begin{tabula
93e0 72 7d 7b 7c 63 7c 63 7c 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 7d r}{|c|c|}.........\begin{center}
9400 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 .........Shells.are.represented.
9420 62 79 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 70 72 by.numbers.(i.e..shell.with.a.pr
9440 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6e 20 69 73 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 6e 29 2e 20 53 75 incipal.number.n.is.shell.n)..Su
9460 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 20 6e 75 6d bshells.are.represented.by.a.num
9480 62 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f ber.and.a.letter..The.angular.mo
94a0 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6c 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 74 68 69 73 20 70 61 74 mentum.number.l.follows.this.pat
94c0 74 65 72 6e 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 6e 3d 33 2c tern.(e.g..a.subshell.where.n=3,
94e0 20 6c 3d 30 20 69 73 20 33 73 29 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 .l=0.is.3s):..................A.
9500 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 77 69 74 subshell.is.all.the.orbitals.wit
9520 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 28 6e 29 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 67 h.the.same.principal.(n).and.ang
9540 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 28 6c 29 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 ular.momentum.(l).quantum.number
9560 73 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 6c 79 2c 20 61 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 68 61 73 20 75 6e 69 s..Similarly,.an.orbital.has.uni
9580 71 75 65 20 73 65 74 20 6f 66 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 2c 20 61 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f que.set.of.principal,.angular.mo
95a0 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d mentum,.and.magnetic.quantum.num
95c0 62 65 72 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 69 bers...................A.shell.i
95e0 73 20 61 20 73 65 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d s.a.set.of.orbitals.with.the.sam
9600 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2c 20 6e 2e 20 49 6e 20 61 20 6e 6f 6e 2d e.principal.number,.n..In.a.non-
9620 65 78 63 69 74 65 64 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 2d 2d 20 61 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 66 61 75 excited.state.--.as.is.the.defau
9640 6c 74 20 66 6f 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 2d 2d 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 63 63 75 70 79 lt.for.atoms.--.electrons.occupy
9660 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 77 65 73 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 .the.lowest.energy.orbitals.and.
9680 66 69 6c 6c 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 6c 79 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 6f fill.randomly.between.orbitals.o
96a0 66 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 61 6e 69 66 65 73 74 73 20 69 f.equal.energy..This.manifests.i
96c0 6e 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 66 69 6c 6c 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 63 75 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 n.shells.filling.consecutively..
96e0 46 75 6c 6c 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 28 49 20 77 Full.shells.are.more.stable.(I.w
9700 6f 75 6c 64 20 72 65 63 68 65 63 6b 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 74 27 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 ould.recheck.this,.and.it's.like
9720 6c 79 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 20 74 72 75 65 29 2e 20 42 6f 68 72 20 64 69 ly.not.completely.true)..Bohr.di
9740 61 67 72 61 6d 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 agrams.are.often.used.to.represe
9760 6e 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 nt.these.shells..........\subsub
9780 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 53 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 4f section{Shells,.Subshells,.and.O
97a0 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 rbitals}.........\end{center}...
97c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ......\end{tabular}.............
97e0 20 6d 20 26 20 49 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 2d 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 2b 6c 20 .m.&.Integers.between.-l.and.+l.
9800 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 6c 20 26 20 50 6f 73 69 74 \\.\hline..............l.&.Posit
9820 69 76 65 20 69 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 30 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 2d 31 20 5c ive.integers.between.0.and.n-1.\
9840 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 6e 20 26 20 4e 6f 6e 7a 65 72 \.\hline..............n.&.Nonzer
9860 6f 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 69 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 o.positive.integers.\\.\hline...
9880 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 4e 6f 2e 20 26 20 50 6f 73 73 69 62 6c ...........Quantum.No..&.Possibl
98a0 65 20 56 61 6c 75 65 73 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c e.Values.\\.\hline.............\
98c0 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 72 7d 7b 20 7c hline.........\begin{tabular}{.|
98e0 20 63 20 7c 20 63 20 7c 20 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 63 65 6e 74 65 72 .c.|.c.|.}.........\begin{center
9900 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 20 }.........In.the.electron.cloud.
9920 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 model,.electrons.are.located.in.
9940 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 28 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 68 65 72 65 orbitals.(a.given.location.where
9960 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 29 2e 20 41 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 .an.electron.can.be)..A.quantum.
9980 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 number.describes.the.location.of
99a0 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 24 6e 24 20 28 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 61 6c 20 71 75 .the.electron..$n$.(principal.qu
99c0 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 73 69 7a antum.number).is.the.orbital.siz
99e0 65 2e 20 24 6c 24 20 28 61 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f 6d 65 6e 74 75 6d 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d e..$l$.(angular.momentum.quantum
9a00 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 73 68 61 70 65 2e 20 24 .number).is.the.orbital.shape..$
9a20 6d 24 20 28 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 63 20 71 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 29 20 69 73 20 m$.(magnetic.quantum.number).is.
9a40 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 6f 72 69 65 6e 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d the.orbital.orientation..Quantum
9a60 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 61 69 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 73 .numbers.are.constrained.to.thes
9a80 65 20 76 61 6c 75 65 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e e.values:.........\subsubsection
9aa0 7b 51 75 61 6e 74 75 6d 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f {Quantum.Numbers}.....\subsectio
9ac0 6e 7b 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 43 6f n{Atomic.Numbers.and.Electron.Co
9ae0 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 6c 6c 20 nfigurations}.........These.all.
9b00 74 61 6b 65 20 61 64 76 61 6e 74 61 67 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 take.advantage.of.the.difference
9b20 73 20 6f 66 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 65 s.of.physical.properties.of.mate
9b40 72 69 61 6c 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 73 6f 6c 75 62 69 6c 69 74 79 2c 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e rials.such.as.solubility,.boilin
9b60 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 2c 20 6f 72 20 73 69 7a 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 g.point,.or.size................
9b80 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 ...\end{itemize}.............\it
9ba0 65 6d 20 43 68 72 6f 6d 61 74 6f 67 72 61 70 68 79 3a 20 50 61 73 73 69 6e 67 20 61 20 6d 69 78 em.Chromatography:.Passing.a.mix
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ae40 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 62 ,.which.allow.the.electrons.to.b
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aee0 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 61 69 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 .of.the.constraint.of.the.magnet
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b000 61 64 00 00 6c 00 00 00 68 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 38 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 0f 00 00 f7 0e 00 00 ad..l...h.......8...............
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b0a0 67 05 00 00 5e 05 00 00 14 05 00 00 fc 04 00 00 ce 04 00 00 9e 04 00 00 44 04 00 00 ef 03 00 00 g...^...................D.......
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b0e0 76 02 00 00 2c 02 00 00 16 02 00 00 0d 02 00 00 71 01 00 00 68 01 00 00 67 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 v...,...........q...h...g.......
b100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
b140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
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b1a0 20 6f 72 20 42 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 63 6f 6d .or.B.typically.form.colored.com
b1c0 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 pounds,.and.can.have.useful.prop
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b2e0 20 41 72 65 20 6f 64 6f 72 6c 65 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 61 73 74 65 6c 65 73 73 00 20 20 20 20 .Are.odorless.and.tasteless.....
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b320 72 74 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 28 6e 6f 6e 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c rt.gases.(nonreactive).........\
b340 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 begin{itemize}.........The.noble
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b3a0 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .........\end{itemize}..........
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b3e0 61 69 6e 20 31 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d ain.1.electron.............\item
b400 20 48 69 67 68 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 20 61 6e 64 .Highly.reactive.with.alkali.and
b420 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 6e 65 20 65 61 72 74 68 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 73 .alkaline.earth.metals.to.form.s
b440 61 6c 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 alt.............\item.Naturally.
b460 6f 63 63 75 72 69 6e 67 20 61 73 20 64 69 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 28 occuring.as.diatomic.molecules.(
b480 24 46 5f 32 24 2c 20 24 43 6c 5f 32 24 2c 20 24 42 72 5f 32 24 2c 20 24 49 5f 32 24 29 00 20 20 $F_2$,.$Cl_2$,.$Br_2$,.$I_2$)...
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b4c0 63 61 6c 20 6f 72 67 61 6e 69 73 6d 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 cal.organisms.............\item.
b4e0 48 69 67 68 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 Highly.reactive.with.metals.....
b500 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 ....\begin{itemize}.........The.
b520 68 61 6c 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 31 37 20 6f 72 20 37 41 20 61 72 65 20 6e halogens.in.group.17.or.7A.are.n
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b560 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 ...............\end{itemize}....
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b620 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4d 6f 72 65 20 62 72 69 74 74 6c 65 20 .............\item.More.brittle.
b640 74 68 61 6e 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c than.alkali.metals.............\
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b700 2b 31 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 63 61 6e 20 65 61 73 69 6c +1.cation.because.they.can.easil
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b740 69 74 65 6d 20 41 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 6f 78 69 64 69 7a 65 20 69 6e 20 61 69 72 00 20 20 20 20 item.Able.to.oxidize.in.air.....
b760 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 48 69 67 68 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 77 69 ........\item.Highly.reactive.wi
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b7a0 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 53 6f 66 74 20 28 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 63 75 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 6b 6e \item.Soft.(can.be.cut.with.a.kn
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b800 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 65 20 61 6c 6b 61 6c 69 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 .......The.alkali.metals.in.grou
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b840 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 ..........Groups.on.the.periodic
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b8c0 7b 4d 69 6e 6f 72 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 {Minor.Groups}.........On.the.pe
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b980 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 47 72 6f 75 70 73 20 6f 72 20 66 61 6d 69 6c 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 .........Groups.or.families.are.
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bb40 20 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 74 65 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 6c 65 20 28 65 ..Metals.tend.to.be.malleable.(e
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bcc0 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 2c 20 4e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 \subsubsection{Metals,.Nonmetals
bce0 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 53 65 6d 69 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 48 65 6e 72 79 20 ,.and.Semimetals}.........Henry.
bd00 4d 6f 73 65 6c 65 79 20 28 31 39 30 39 29 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 6e Moseley.(1909).completed.the.fin
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bd40 74 61 62 6c 65 20 62 79 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 2c 20 69 6e table.by.using.atomic.number,.in
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bde0 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 4d 6f 64 65 72 6e 20 50 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 54 61 62 6c section{The.Modern.Periodic.Tabl
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be40 74 61 62 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6c 6c 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2e 20 48 65 20 table.of.all.known.elements..He.
be60 6f 72 64 65 72 65 64 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 62 79 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 61 ordered.elements.by.increasing.a
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bea0 70 61 63 65 73 20 66 6f 72 20 75 6e 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 64 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 paces.for.undiscovered.elements.
bec0 62 61 73 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 69 74 69 65 73 2f 70 61 74 74 65 72 6e 73 20 6f based.on.similarities/patterns.o
bee0 66 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 f.chemical.properties...........
bf00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 42 75 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 61 6e ........Building.off.of.this,.an
bf20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 73 63 69 65 6e 74 69 73 74 2c 20 4a 6f 68 6e 20 4e 65 77 6c 61 6e 64 73 2c 20 other.scientist,.John.Newlands,.
bf40 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 6f 63 74 61 76 65 73 2e 20 41 6d developed.the.law.of.octaves..Am
bf60 6f 6e 67 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2c 20 68 65 20 64 69 73 63 6f 76 65 72 65 ong.known.elements,.he.discovere
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c000 61 64 00 00 3d 01 00 00 a9 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 14 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 99 0e 00 00 67 0e 00 00 ad..=.......................g...
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c040 de 07 00 00 2d 07 00 00 0c 07 00 00 dd 06 00 00 73 05 00 00 44 05 00 00 3e 03 00 00 0a 03 00 00 ....-...........s...D...>.......
c060 d3 01 00 00 a9 01 00 00 a8 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c0c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c0e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
c1a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b .................\subsubsection{
c1c0 49 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 Ionization.Energy}.........Ionic
c1e0 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 61 6e 64 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 22 72 75 6c 65 73 22 20 .radii.and.atomic.radii."rules".
c200 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 75 6e 62 72 65 61 6b 61 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 are.not.unbreakable..Transition.
c220 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 62 72 65 61 6b 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 72 75 6c 65 73 20 62 metals.often.break.these.rules.b
c240 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 64 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 ecause.they.fill.the.d.subshells
c260 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 73 ,.which.is.in.a.smaller.radius.s
c280 68 65 6c 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 69 6e hell..This.makes.atomic.radii.in
c2a0 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 61 20 73 crease.across.a.period.after.a.s
c2c0 6c 69 67 68 74 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 64 69 69 light.decrease..The.cation.radii
c2e0 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 76 61 72 79 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 74 74 65 72 6e 20 69 73 20 69 .also.vary,.but.the.pattern.is.i
c300 72 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e rregular..........\subsubsection
c320 7b 54 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 20 45 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 {Transition.Metal.Exceptions}...
c340 20 20 20 20 20 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 69 73 20 22 61 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 ......Ionic.radius.is."a.measure
c360 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 7a 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 2e 22 20 41 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d .of.the.size.of.an.ion.".An.atom
c380 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 22 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 22 20 69 6f 6e 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 .has.a."standard".ion.(such.as.$
c3a0 41 6c 5e 7b 33 2b 7d 24 20 66 6f 72 20 41 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 29 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 Al^{3+}$.for.Aluminum).which.is.
c3c0 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 65 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 69 74 20 74 72 69 65 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 generated.when.it.tries.to.form.
c3e0 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 2e 20 54 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 a.full.valence.shell..The.ionic.
c400 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 radius.compared.to.the.atomic.ra
c420 64 69 75 73 20 69 73 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 6e 65 67 61 74 dius.is.larger.for.anions.(negat
c440 69 76 65 29 20 62 75 74 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 66 6f 72 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 70 6f ive).but.smaller.for.cations.(po
c460 73 69 74 69 76 65 29 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 sitive)..Similar.to.atomic.radii
c480 2c 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 61 20 67 72 ,.ionic.radii.increase.down.a.gr
c4a0 6f 75 70 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 6c 6f 6e 67 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 oup.and.decrease.along.a.period.
c4c0 77 69 74 68 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 72 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 53 69 within.the.cations.or.anions..Si
c4e0 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 20 69 gnificantly,.there.is.a.slight.i
c500 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 69 6f ncrease.between.cations.and.anio
c520 6e 73 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 24 72 5f 7b 42 5e 7b 33 2b 7d 7d 20 3c 20 72 5f 7b 43 5e 7b 34 2d 7d ns.(e.g..$r_{B^{3+}}.<.r_{C^{4-}
c540 7d 24 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 }$).........\subsubsection{Trend
c560 73 20 6f 66 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 52 61 64 69 69 7d 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 s.of.Ionic.Radii}..........Atomi
c580 63 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 69 73 20 22 68 61 6c 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 62 c.radius.is."half.the.distance.b
c5a0 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 63 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 etween.two.identical.atoms.in.a.
c5c0 64 69 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 2e 22 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 6c 65 63 diatomic.molecule.".Because.elec
c5e0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 61 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6c 65 76 65 6c 20 22 73 68 69 65 6c 64 trons.in.an.energy.level."shield
c600 22 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 74 ".the.nuclear.attraction.from.ot
c620 68 65 72 73 2c 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 74 65 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 64 65 63 72 65 hers,.atomic.radii.tend.to.decre
c640 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 2e 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 ase.across.a.period..Atomic.radi
c660 69 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 74 65 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 69 6e 63 i.also.tend.to.significantly.inc
c680 72 65 61 73 65 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 61 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 20 rease.down.a.group...This.means.
c6a0 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 73 74 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 75 73 20 69 that.the.largest.atomic.radius.i
c6c0 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 74 74 6f 6d 20 6c 65 66 74 20 63 6f 72 6e 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 s.in.the.bottom.left.corner.....
c6e0 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 20 41 74 .....\subsubsection{Trends.of.At
c700 6f 6d 69 63 20 52 61 64 69 69 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 65 72 69 omic.Radii}.....\subsection{Peri
c720 6f 64 69 63 20 54 72 65 6e 64 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 6f 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e odic.Trends}.........Some.elemen
c740 74 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 22 63 6f 72 72 65 63 74 22 20 64 ts.do.not.follow.the."correct".d
c760 69 61 67 6f 6e 61 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 20 74 72 65 6e 64 73 2c 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 69 6e 20 74 iagonal.rule.trends,.mostly.in.t
c780 68 65 20 64 2d 62 6c 6f 63 6b 2c 20 66 2d 62 6c 6f 63 6b 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 he.d-block,.f-block,.and.transit
c7a0 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 6b 6e 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 74 ional.metals..However,.knowing.t
c7c0 68 65 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 75 6e 6e 65 63 65 73 73 61 72 79 2e 00 20 20 he.exceptions.is.unnecessary....
c7e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 6e 20 6c 6f 6f 6b 69 6e 67 20 61 74 20 65 ...............When.looking.at.e
c800 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 73 65 71 75 65 6e 63 65 2c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 lements.in.sequence,.valence.ele
c820 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 27 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 75 70 20 75 6e 74 69 6c 20 74 ctrons'.orbitals.fill.up.until.t
c840 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 here.is.a.subshell.which.is.only
c860 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 66 69 6c 6c 65 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 68 69 67 68 65 73 74 20 .partially.filled..This.highest.
c880 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 22 energy.subshell.determines.the."
c8a0 62 6c 6f 63 6b 22 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 block".of.the.element..For.examp
c8c0 6c 65 2c 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 le,.an.element.with.an.electron.
c8e0 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 24 31 73 5e 32 32 73 5e 32 32 70 5e 34 24 20 69 73 20 configuration.$1s^22s^22p^4$.is.
c900 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 2d 62 6c 6f 63 6b 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 22 62 6c 6f 63 in.the.p-block..These.form."bloc
c920 6b 73 22 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 ks".across.the.table,.which.can.
c940 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 66 61 73 74 65 72 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6e 6f allow.faster.determination.of.no
c960 62 6c 65 2d 67 61 73 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 28 77 68 65 6e 20 64 6f 69 ble-gas.configurations.(when.doi
c980 6e 67 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 74 61 6b 65 20 6e 6f 74 65 20 6f 66 20 22 6f 75 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 ng.this,.take.note.of."out.of.or
c9a0 64 65 72 22 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 der".subshells).........\subsubs
c9c0 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 56 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 42 6c 6f 63 6b 73 7d 00 ection{Valence.Electron.Blocks}.
c9e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 20 6e 6f 74 61 62 6c 65 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 74 ........A.notable.exception.to.t
ca00 68 65 20 72 75 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 65 76 65 72 79 74 68 69 6e 67 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 he.rule.of.everything.after.the.
ca20 67 61 73 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 61 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 gas.being.a.valence.electron.is.
ca40 74 68 65 20 22 6f 75 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 64 65 72 22 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2e 20 41 20 the."out.of.order".subshells..A.
ca60 66 75 6c 6c 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 73 68 full.subshell.part.of.a.lower.sh
ca80 65 6c 6c 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 28 65 2e ell.than.the.other.subshells.(e.
caa0 67 2e 20 24 33 64 5e 31 30 24 20 69 6e 20 24 34 73 5e 32 33 64 5e 31 30 34 70 5e 33 24 29 20 69 g..$3d^10$.in.$4s^23d^104p^3$).i
cac0 73 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 72 65 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 74 68 s.part.of.the.core.instead.of.th
cae0 65 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 64 6f 65 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 70 70 6c 79 20 74 e.valence..This.does.not.apply.t
cb00 6f 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 66 69 6c 6c 65 64 20 22 6f 75 74 20 6f 66 20 6f 72 64 65 72 o.partially.filled."out.of.order
cb20 22 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4e 6f ".subshells...................No
cb40 62 6c 65 2d 47 61 73 20 4e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 ble-Gas.Notation.is.also.useful.
cb60 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 65 6d 70 68 61 73 69 7a 65 73 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c because.it.emphasizes.valence.el
cb80 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 72 65 61 ectrons,.the.chemically.most.rea
cba0 63 74 69 76 65 20 70 61 72 74 2e 20 54 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 ctive.part..The.electrons.which.
cbc0 61 72 65 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 73 75 are.part.of.the.abbreviation.(su
cbe0 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 5b 4e 65 5d 24 29 20 61 72 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 63 6f 72 65 20 65 6c ch.as.$[Ne]$).are.called.core.el
cc00 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 75 6e 72 65 61 63 ectrons.and.are.generally.unreac
cc20 74 69 76 65 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 tive.because.they.are.part.of.a.
cc40 66 75 6c 6c 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 28 6d 75 63 68 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 20 full.shell.(much.like.the.noble.
cc60 67 61 73 65 73 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 69 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 29 2e 00 gases.they.are.abbreviated.to)..
cc80 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6f 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 ........\subsubsection{Core.and.
cca0 56 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 76 65 72 79 Valence.Electrons}.........Every
ccc0 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 68 61 73 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 .element.has.an.electron.configu
cce0 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 69 6e 67 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 20 42 ration,.including.noble.gases..B
cd00 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 6f 75 74 ecause.noble.gases.have.full.out
cd20 65 72 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 48 65 6c 69 75 6d 20 68 61 73 20 24 31 73 5e 32 er.shells.(e.g..Helium.has.$1s^2
cd40 24 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 4e 65 6f 6e 20 68 61 73 20 24 31 73 5e 32 32 $.configuration,.Neon.has.$1s^22
cd60 73 5e 32 32 70 5e 36 24 29 2c 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f s^22p^6$),.electron.configuratio
cd80 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 73 68 6f 72 74 65 6e 65 64 20 62 79 20 72 65 66 65 72 65 6e 63 69 ns.can.be.shortened.by.referenci
cda0 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 22 63 6c 6f 73 65 73 74 22 20 6e 6f 62 6c 65 20 67 61 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 ng.the."closest".noble.gas..For.
cdc0 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 53 6f 64 69 75 6d 27 73 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 example,.Sodium's.electron.confi
cde0 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 24 31 73 5e 32 32 73 5e 32 32 70 5e 36 33 73 5e 31 3d 5b 4e guration.is.$1s^22s^22p^63s^1=[N
ce00 65 5d 33 73 5e 31 24 2e 20 49 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 73 74 2c 20 22 6e 6f 72 6d 61 6c 22 20 6e e]3s^1$..In.contrast,."normal".n
ce20 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 6c 6f 6e 67 68 61 6e 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 otation.is.called.longhand......
ce40 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 6f 62 6c 65 2d 47 61 73 20 4e 6f 74 ....\subsubsection{Noble-Gas.Not
ce60 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 ation}.....\subsection{Electrons
ce80 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 50 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 54 61 62 6c 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .and.the.Periodic.Table}........
cea0 20 54 68 65 20 69 6e 6e 65 72 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 28 61 63 .The.inner.transition.metals.(ac
cec0 74 69 6e 69 64 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 6e 74 68 61 6e 69 64 65 73 29 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 70 tinides.and.lanthanides).are.a.p
cee0 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 77 68 69 art.of.the.transition.metals.whi
cf00 63 68 20 61 70 70 65 61 72 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 74 74 6f 6d 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 ch.appear.at.the.bottom.of.the.t
cf20 61 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 72 61 64 69 6f 61 63 74 69 76 able..These.are.often.radioactiv
cf40 65 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 55 72 61 e,.especially.elements.after.Ura
cf60 6e 69 75 6d 2e 20 41 6e 79 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 55 72 61 6e 69 75 6d 20 nium..Any.element.after.Uranium.
cf80 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 22 74 72 61 6e 73 2d 55 72 61 6e 69 75 6d 2c 22 20 61 6e 64 20 74 is.called."trans-Uranium,".and.t
cfa0 68 65 73 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 79 6e 74 68 65 73 69 73 hese.elements.are.only.synthesis
cfc0 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 61 63 63 65 6c 65 72 61 74 6f 72 73 2c 20 6f 74 ed.with.nuclear.accelerators,.ot
cfe0 68 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 72 61 63 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 6e 20 45 61 72 74 68 00 her.than.trace.amounts.on.Earth.
d000 61 64 00 00 06 00 00 00 a2 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 20 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 d6 0c 00 00 cd 0c 00 00 ad..............................
d020 b5 0c 00 00 6f 0c 00 00 d9 0b 00 00 92 0b 00 00 7c 0b 00 00 73 0b 00 00 e7 0a 00 00 b3 0a 00 00 ....o...........|...s...........
d040 74 08 00 00 40 08 00 00 49 07 00 00 1f 07 00 00 08 07 00 00 d7 06 00 00 24 06 00 00 1b 06 00 00 t...@...I...............$.......
d060 f8 05 00 00 e0 05 00 00 6a 05 00 00 31 05 00 00 dc 04 00 00 7f 04 00 00 34 04 00 00 1d 04 00 00 ........j...1...........4.......
d080 14 04 00 00 79 03 00 00 70 03 00 00 67 02 00 00 3b 02 00 00 a2 00 00 00 a1 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ....y...p...g...;...............
d0a0 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4d 6f 73 74 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 72 65 73 ..........Most.gases.are.compres
d0c0 73 69 62 6c 65 20 28 61 20 67 61 73 27 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 20 63 61 6e 20 73 68 72 sible.(a.gas's.container.can.shr
d0e0 69 6e 6b 29 20 61 6e 64 20 65 78 70 61 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 63 6f ink).and.expand.to.fill.their.co
d100 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 77 65 6c 6c 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 65 64 20 ntainer..This.is.well.explained.
d120 77 69 74 68 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 2d 2d with.kinetic-molecular.theory.--
d140 20 77 69 74 68 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 73 70 61 63 65 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 70 61 72 74 69 .with.large.spaces.between.parti
d160 63 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e cles.and.no.interactions.between
d180 20 74 68 65 6d 2c 20 61 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 .them,.a.smaller.container.would
d1a0 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 61 6e 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 73 74 61 79 20 77 69 .make.any.given.particle.stay.wi
d1c0 74 68 69 6e 20 61 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 73 70 61 63 65 20 28 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 20 69 73 thin.a.smaller.space.(the.gas.is
d1e0 20 61 6c 72 65 61 64 79 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 73 70 61 63 65 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 .already.mostly.space),.and.the.
d200 6c 61 63 6b 20 6f 66 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 6d 20 74 lack.of.interaction.allow.them.t
d220 6f 20 73 70 72 65 61 64 20 6f 75 74 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 69 6c 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 o.spread.out.as.they.will.......
d240 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 ...\subsubsection{Properties.of.
d260 47 61 73 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 Gases}.........This.also.allows.
d280 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 28 66 6f 72 63 65 20 the.relation.of.pressure.(force.
d2a0 70 65 72 20 75 6e 69 74 20 61 72 65 61 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 29 2c per.unit.area.of.the.container),
d2c0 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 28 73 69 7a 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 29 2c .volume.(size.of.the.container),
d2e0 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 28 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e .temperature.(average.kinetic.en
d300 65 72 67 79 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 28 ergy),.and.number.of.molecules.(
d320 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 29 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 67 61 73 2e amount.of.gas).for.the.same.gas.
d340 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 50 5f 31 56 5f 31 7d 7b 4e 5f 31 54 5f 31 7d 3d 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 50 5f .$\frac{P_1V_1}{N_1T_1}=\frac{P_
d360 32 56 5f 32 7d 7b 4e 5f 32 54 5f 32 7d 24 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 2V_2}{N_2T_2}$..................
d380 20 41 6e 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 74 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 6c .An.ideal.gas.is.the.theoretical
d3a0 20 67 61 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 69 73 20 77 65 6c 6c 2d 6d 6f 64 65 6c 65 64 20 62 79 20 6b 69 6e .gas.that.is.well-modeled.by.kin
d3c0 65 74 69 63 2d 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 2e 20 55 6e 64 65 72 20 63 6f 6d etic-molecular.theory..Under.com
d3e0 6d 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 mon.conditions,.most.gases.are.a
d400 70 70 72 6f 78 69 6d 61 74 65 6c 79 20 69 64 65 61 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 pproximately.ideal..............
d420 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .....\end{itemize}..............
d440 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 \item.Average.kinetic.energy.is.
d460 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 00 20 only.dependent.on.temperature...
d480 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 41 6c 6c 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 20 ...........\item.All.collisions.
d4a0 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 65 72 66 65 63 74 6c 79 20 between.particles.are.perfectly.
d4c0 65 6c 61 73 74 69 63 20 28 6e 6f 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 6c 6f 73 74 29 00 20 20 20 20 elastic.(no.energy.is.lost).....
d4e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 54 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 20 66 6f 72 63 65 20 ........\item.There.is.no.force.
d500 6f 66 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 72 20 72 65 70 75 6c 73 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 74 77 65 of.attraction.or.repulsion.betwe
d520 65 6e 20 67 61 73 20 70 61 72 74 69 6c 63 65 73 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 en.gas.partilces.............\it
d540 65 6d 20 4d 6f 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 em.Most.of.the.volume.of.the.gas
d560 20 69 73 20 65 6d 70 74 79 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 47 61 73 65 .is.empty.............\item.Gase
d580 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 61 64 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 s.are.made.of.a.large.number.of.
d5a0 68 61 72 64 20 73 70 68 65 72 65 73 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 62 69 6c 6c 69 61 72 64 20 62 61 6c 6c hard.spheres.(like.billiard.ball
d5c0 73 29 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 6f 75 73 2c 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 20 6d 6f 74 69 6f 6e 00 s).in.continuous,.random.motion.
d5e0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ........\begin{itemize}.........
d600 54 68 65 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 70 6f 73 74 75 6c 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 The.model.postulates.that:......
d620 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 68 ............Kinetic-molecular.th
d640 65 6f 72 79 20 69 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 60 60 61 73 20 61 20 eory.is.a.model.of.gases.``as.a.
d660 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 61 6e 64 20 72 large.number.of.constantly.and.r
d680 61 6e 64 6f 6d 6c 79 20 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 6f andomly.moving.particles.that.co
d6a0 6c 6c 69 64 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 77 61 6c llide.with.eachother.and.the.wal
d6c0 6c 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 2e 27 27 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c ls.of.the.container.''.........\
d6e0 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 2d 4d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 subsubsection{Kinetic-Molecular.
d700 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 47 61 73 65 73 7d 00 5c Theory}.....\subsection{Gases}.\
d720 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 74 61 74 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 section{States.and.Properties.of
d740 20 4d 61 74 74 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 62 6f 6e 64 .Matter}.........When.atoms.bond
d760 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 70 75 6c 6c 20 6f 6e 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 ,.they.pull.on.valence.electrons
d780 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 .shared.in.the.bond..Electronega
d7a0 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 65 6e 67 74 68 20 6f 66 20 tivity.measures.the.strength.of.
d7c0 74 68 69 73 20 70 75 6c 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 this.pull..This.tends.to.increas
d7e0 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 28 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 e.across.a.period.(higher.nuclea
d800 72 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 29 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 r.charge).and.decrease.across.a.
d820 67 72 6f 75 70 20 28 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 29 00 group.(higher.nuclear.distance).
d840 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 69 6e ........\subsubsection{Trends.in
d860 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 45 6c 65 63 .Electronegativity}.........Elec
d880 74 72 6f 6e 20 61 66 66 69 6e 69 74 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 72 65 71 75 tron.affinity.is.the.energy.requ
d8a0 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 64 64 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 61 20 6e 65 75 ired.to.add.an.electron.to.a.neu
d8c0 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 20 70 68 61 73 65 2e 20 4f 66 74 65 tral.atom.in.the.gas.phase..Ofte
d8e0 6e 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 69 73 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 62 65 63 61 75 n,.this.amount.is.negative.becau
d900 73 65 20 61 64 64 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 73 20 65 se.adding.an.electron.releases.e
d920 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 61 66 66 69 6e 69 74 79 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c nergy..Electron.affinity.general
d940 6c 79 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 28 6d 6f 72 65 20 65 ly.becomes.more.negative.(more.e
d960 6e 65 72 67 79 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 64 29 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 2c nergy.released).across.a.period,
d980 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e .but.there.are.several.exception
d9a0 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 32 20 61 6e 64 20 31 35 20 s..For.example,.groups.2.and.15.
d9c0 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6e release.very.small.amounts.of.en
d9e0 65 72 67 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 6f 72 20 68 61 6c 66 2d 66 75 6c 6c 20 ergy.because.a.new.or.half-full.
da00 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 62 65 67 69 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 66 69 6c 6c 65 64 2e 20 49 74 subshell.begins.to.be.filled..It
da20 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 20 6c 65 73 73 20 6e 65 67 61 74 .also.tends.to.become.less.negat
da40 69 76 65 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 ive.down.a.given.group.because.t
da60 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 2c 20 61 he.nuclear.distance.increases,.a
da80 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e nd.the.potential.energy.differen
daa0 63 65 20 62 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 ce.bcomes.smaller..........\subs
dac0 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 41 66 66 ubsection{Trends.in.Electron.Aff
dae0 69 6e 69 74 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 65 65 20 67 72 61 70 68 20 61 74 20 5c 68 72 65 inity}.........See.graph.at.\hre
db00 66 7b 68 74 74 70 73 3a 2f 2f 63 6f 75 72 73 65 73 2e 6c 75 6d 65 6e 6c 65 61 72 6e 69 6e 67 2e f{https://courses.lumenlearning.
db20 63 6f 6d 2f 63 68 65 6d 69 6e 74 65 72 2f 63 68 61 70 74 65 72 2f 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 2d 74 com/cheminter/chapter/periodic-t
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db60 4c 65 61 72 6e 69 6e 67 20 28 66 69 67 2e 20 31 29 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 Learning.(fig..1)}..............
db80 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 ....\end{itemize}.............\i
dba0 74 65 6d 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 65 61 63 68 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 28 tem.decrease.across.each.group.(
dbc0 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 higher.nuclear.distance)........
dbe0 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 6c 79 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 62 65 74 .....\item.slightly.decrease.bet
dc00 77 65 65 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 32 20 61 6e 64 20 31 33 20 28 62 65 67 69 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 ween.groups.2.and.13.(begins.to.
dc20 61 64 64 20 74 6f 20 6e 65 77 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 29 20 5c 26 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 31 add.to.new.subshell).\&.groups.1
dc40 35 20 61 6e 64 20 31 36 20 28 62 65 67 69 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 61 64 64 20 74 6f 20 68 61 6c 66 2d 5.and.16.(begins.to.add.to.half-
dc60 66 75 6c 6c 20 73 75 62 73 68 65 6c 6c 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d full.subshell).............\item
dc80 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 61 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 28 6e 75 63 6c 65 .increase.across.a.period.(nucle
dca0 61 72 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 62 65 ar.charge.increases).........\be
dcc0 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 6f gin{itemize}..................To
dce0 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 6f 70 69 .form.the.ions.mentioned.in.topi
dd00 63 20 54 72 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 52 61 64 69 69 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 c.Trends.of.Ionic.Radii,.there.i
dd20 73 20 61 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 s.a.significant.amount.of.energy
dd40 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e .required.to.remove.the.electron
dd60 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 28 66 6f 72 20 74 68 s..This.amount.of.energy.(for.th
dd80 65 20 67 61 73 65 6f 75 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 29 20 69 73 e.gaseous.form.of.an.element).is
dda0 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 .called.the.ionization.energy..T
ddc0 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 73 20 6f 6e 20 he.ionization.energy.depends.on.
dde0 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 66 61 63 74 6f 72 73 3a 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 61 72 20 63 68 61 several.factors:.the.nuclear.cha
de00 72 67 65 20 28 61 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 65 72 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 20 69 73 20 68 61 72 64 65 rge.(a.stronger.nucleus.is.harde
de20 72 20 74 6f 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 29 2c 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 r.to.remove.from),.the.distance.
de40 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 75 73 of.the.electron.from.the.nucleus
de60 20 28 61 20 66 61 72 20 61 77 61 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 74 61 6b 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 .(a.far.away.electron.takes.more
de80 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 .energy),.and.the.number.of.elec
dea0 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 64 20 28 72 65 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 trons.removed.(removing.an.elect
dec0 72 6f 6e 20 77 68 69 6c 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 ron.while.there.is.a.strong.elec
dee0 74 72 69 63 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 69 63 75 6c 74 20 74 68 tric.charge.is.more.difficult.th
df00 61 6e 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 69 6e 67 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 29 an.removing.from.a.neutral.atom)
df20 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 74 69 63 65 61 62 6c 65 20 64 69 66 66 ..Because.of.the.noticeable.diff
df40 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e erence.in.the.number.of.electron
df60 73 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 64 2c 20 66 69 72 73 74 2c 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 2c 20 74 68 69 72 64 2c s.removed,.first,.second,.third,
df80 20 65 74 63 2e 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 .etc..ionization.energies.are.re
dfa0 63 6f 72 64 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f corded.as.the.energy.required.to
dfc0 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 .remove.a.given.electron..The.fi
dfe0 72 73 74 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 3a 00 rst.ionization.energy.tends.to:.
e000 61 64 00 00 14 00 00 00 94 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 19 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 f7 0f 00 00 29 0f 00 00 ad..........................)...
e020 20 0f 00 00 08 0d 00 00 ef 0c 00 00 c2 0c 00 00 fb 0a 00 00 bb 0a 00 00 8c 09 00 00 83 09 00 00 ................................
e040 ed 08 00 00 cb 08 00 00 44 07 00 00 1c 07 00 00 b2 05 00 00 89 05 00 00 20 05 00 00 17 05 00 00 ........D.......................
e060 7a 03 00 00 56 03 00 00 20 03 00 00 c9 01 00 00 c0 01 00 00 be 00 00 00 94 00 00 00 93 00 00 00 z...V...........................
e080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 ............................\sub
e0a0 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 7d 00 20 20 subsection{Plasma.Properties}...
e0c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6d 6f 72 70 68 6f 75 73 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 2c 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6f ......Amorphous.solids,.on.the.o
e0e0 74 68 65 72 20 68 61 6e 64 2c 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 ther.hand,.are.not.periodic.and.
e100 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 6c 69 6e 65 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 74 69 6c 6c crystalline,.but.these.are.still
e120 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d .solid..The.particles.often.form
e140 20 61 6d 6f 72 70 68 6f 75 73 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 72 61 70 69 64 .amorphous.structures.from.rapid
e160 20 63 6f 6f 6c 69 6e 67 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 68 61 6c 74 73 20 61 73 73 65 6d 62 6c 79 20 6f 66 .cooling.which.halts.assembly.of
e180 20 75 6e 69 74 20 63 65 6c 6c 73 20 61 73 20 69 6e 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 .unit.cells.as.in.crystals..This
e1a0 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 2d 6c 69 6b 65 20 6d 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 00 .can.allow.liquid-like.movement.
e1c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 63 6f .................Solids.are.a.co
e1e0 6c 64 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 72 69 67 ld.state.of.matter.which.are.rig
e200 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 6c 79 20 72 65 73 69 73 74 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 74 6f id.and.strongly.resist.change.to
e220 20 73 68 61 70 65 20 6f 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 2e 20 53 6f 6d 65 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 61 72 .shape.or.volume..Some.solids.ar
e240 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 6c 69 6e 65 2c 20 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 79 e.crystalline,.meaning.that.they
e260 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 20 28 72 65 70 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 75 6e 69 74 20 .have.a.regular.(repeating.unit.
e280 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 74 68 which.is.significantly.larger.th
e2a0 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 74 68 65 6d 73 65 6c 76 65 73 29 20 6c 61 74 an.the.particles.themselves).lat
e2c0 74 69 63 65 20 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 43 72 79 73 74 61 6c 6c 69 6e 65 20 73 6f tice.arrangement..Crystalline.so
e2e0 6c 69 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 63 6f 6d 70 72 65 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 28 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c lids.are.incompressible.(typical
e300 6c 79 20 64 65 6e 73 65 20 61 6e 64 20 68 61 72 64 29 20 61 6e 64 20 76 69 62 72 61 74 65 2e 00 ly.dense.and.hard).and.vibrate..
e320 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 72 79 73 74 61 6c 73 20 ........\subsubsection{Crystals.
e340 61 6e 64 20 41 6d 6f 72 70 68 6f 75 73 20 53 6f 6c 69 64 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 and.Amorphous.Solids}.....\subse
e360 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 ction{Solids.and.Plasmas}.......
e380 20 20 4c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 73 6f 6c 69 ..Liquids.can.also.dissolve.soli
e3a0 64 73 2c 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 20 57 68 ds,.other.liquids,.and.gases..Wh
e3c0 65 6e 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 2c 20 en.dissolving.another.material,.
e3e0 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 20 65 76 65 6e 6c 79 20 64 69 73 70 65 72 73 65 particles.become.evenly.disperse
e400 64 20 61 6d 6f 6e 67 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 20 57 68 65 6e 20 74 d.among.liquid.particles..When.t
e420 77 6f 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 22 6d wo.liquids.dissolve,.they.are."m
e440 69 73 63 69 62 6c 65 22 20 28 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 iscible".(able.to.dissolve.into.
e460 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 73 74 20 eachother)..This.is.in.contrast.
e480 74 6f 20 69 6d 6d 69 73 63 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6f 69 6c 20 61 to.immiscible.liquids.like.oil.a
e4a0 6e 64 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 72 65 6d 61 69 6e 20 73 65 70 61 72 61 74 65 2e 20 nd.water.which.remain.separate..
e4c0 41 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 2c 20 73 75 72 66 61 63 74 61 6e 74 As.mentioned.earlier,.surfactant
e4e0 73 20 63 61 6e 20 22 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 22 20 69 6d 6d 69 73 63 69 62 6c 65 20 6c 69 71 75 69 s.can."connect".immiscible.liqui
e500 64 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 69 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 ds.like.water.and.oil...........
e520 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 4c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 69 6e ........Liquids.are.generally.in
e540 63 6f 6d 70 72 65 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 74 68 65 6d 20 74 compressible..This.allows.them.t
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f840 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 61 20 73 74 72 69 63 74 20 68 69 65 72 61 .of.matter.follow.a.strict.hiera
f860 72 63 68 79 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 3a 20 24 45 5f 7b 73 6f 6c 69 64 7d 20 3c 20 45 5f 7b rchy.of.energy:.$E_{solid}.<.E_{
f880 6c 69 71 75 69 64 7d 20 3c 20 45 5f 7b 67 61 73 7d 20 3c 20 45 5f 7b 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 7d 24 2e liquid}.<.E_{gas}.<.E_{plasma}$.
f8a0 20 42 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6c 64 65 73 74 20 33 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 .Between.the.coldest.3.state.of.
f8c0 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2c 20 61 6e 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 energy,.any.given.transition.is.
f8e0 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 64 20 61 73 20 4d 65 6c possible..These.are.named.as.Mel
f900 74 69 6e 67 2f 46 72 65 65 7a 69 6e 67 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 ting/Freezing.between.solid.and.
f920 6c 69 71 75 69 64 2c 20 42 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 2f 43 6f 6e 64 65 6e 73 69 6e 67 20 62 65 74 77 65 liquid,.Boiling/Condensing.betwe
f940 65 6e 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 67 61 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 53 75 62 6c 69 6d 61 74 69 en.liquid.and.gas,.and.Sublimati
f960 6f 6e 2f 44 65 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 on/Deposition.between.solid.and.
f980 67 61 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 68 61 73 65 20 63 68 61 6e gas..The.first.of.the.phase.chan
f9a0 67 65 73 20 69 6e 20 65 61 63 68 20 70 61 69 72 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 77 68 65 6e 20 61 20 73 ges.in.each.pairs.occur.when.a.s
f9c0 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 73 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 43 6f 6e 76 65 72 73 ubstance.absorbs.energy..Convers
f9e0 65 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6c 61 74 74 65 72 20 70 68 61 73 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 ely,.the.latter.phase.change.in.
fa00 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 61 69 72 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 72 65 6c these.pairs.makes.substances.rel
fa20 65 61 73 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 ease.energy..........\subsubsect
fa40 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 4d 6f 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 50 68 61 73 65 20 43 ion{Molecular.Motion.and.Phase.C
fa60 68 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 68 61 73 65 20 43 68 hanges}.....\subsection{Phase.Ch
fa80 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 anges}.........\end{itemize}....
faa0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 46 65 77 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 31 5c 25 20 6f 66 .........\item.Fewer.than.1\%.of
fac0 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 65 64 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 .particles.are.ionized..........
fae0 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 27 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 ...\item.Electrons'.kinetic.ener
fb00 67 79 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 gy.becomes.light.............\it
fb20 65 6d 20 54 68 65 79 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 68 6f 74 2f 66 61 73 74 20 65 6c 65 63 em.They.often.have.hot/fast.elec
fb40 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 28 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 65 78 63 65 65 64 69 6e 67 6c 79 20 6c 69 67 trons.(which.are.exceedingly.lig
fb60 68 74 29 20 62 75 74 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 28 73 6c 6f 77 29 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 ht).but.cold.(slow).nuclei.allow
fb80 69 6e 67 20 61 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 ing.a.thermal.equilibrium.......
fba0 20 20 20 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 54 65 63 68 6e ...\begin{itemize}.........Techn
fbc0 6f 6c 6f 67 79 20 75 74 69 6c 69 73 69 6e 67 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 20 61 72 65 20 76 65 72 79 ology.utilising.plasmas.are.very
fbe0 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 3a 20 66 6c 75 6f 72 65 73 63 65 6e 74 20 6c 69 67 68 74 73 2c 20 69 6f 6e .common:.fluorescent.lights,.ion
fc00 20 74 68 72 5c 2d 75 73 74 65 72 73 2c 20 61 72 63 20 77 65 6c 64 65 72 73 2c 20 70 6c 61 73 6d .thr\-usters,.arc.welders,.plasm
fc20 61 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 76 65 6c 74 79 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 62 a.displays,.and.novelty.plasma.b
fc40 61 6c 6c 73 2e 20 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 79 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 alls..Plasma.displays.and.plasma
fc60 20 62 61 6c 6c 73 20 70 6f 73 65 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 74 65 72 65 73 74 69 6e 67 20 65 78 63 65 70 .balls.pose.an.interesting.excep
fc80 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 22 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 22 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 70 6c 61 73 6d tion.to."standard".thermal.plasm
fca0 61 73 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 6e 69 6e 67 2c 20 73 74 61 72 73 2c 20 6f 72 as.(such.as.lightning,.stars,.or
fcc0 20 61 72 63 20 77 65 6c 64 65 72 73 29 20 2d 2d 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 28 6e 6f 6e 2d 74 68 65 72 6d .arc.welders).--.cold.(non-therm
fce0 61 6c 29 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 65 al).plasmas..These.are.able.to.e
fd00 78 69 73 74 20 61 73 20 63 6f 6c 64 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 3a 00 20 20 xist.as.cold.plasmas.because:...
fd20 20 20 20 20 20 20 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 57 68 65 6e 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 62 75 69 6c ...............When.charges.buil
fd40 64 20 75 70 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 63 6c 6f 75 64 73 20 74 6f 20 67 72 6f 75 6e 64 2c 20 69 74 27 73 d.up.from.clouds.to.ground,.it's
fd60 20 73 6f 20 70 6f 77 65 72 66 75 6c 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 61 .so.powerful.that.plasma.forms.a
fd80 6c 6f 6e 67 20 69 74 73 20 70 61 74 68 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 63 68 61 long.its.path.in.order.to.discha
fda0 72 67 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 61 20 6c 69 67 68 rge.the.electrons.through.a.ligh
fdc0 74 6e 69 6e 67 20 73 74 72 69 6b 65 2e 20 42 6f 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 74 tning.strike..Both.the.sun.and.t
fde0 68 65 20 73 74 61 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f he.stars.are.plasmas,.and.the.so
fe00 6c 61 72 20 77 69 6e 64 27 73 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 lar.wind's.interactions.with.the
fe20 20 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 6f 73 70 68 65 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 75 70 70 65 72 20 61 74 6d 6f 73 70 68 .magnetosphere.and.upper.atmosph
fe40 65 72 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 75 72 6f 72 61 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 2e ere.forming.auroras.are.plasmas.
fe60 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 69 .........\subsubsection{Plasma.i
fe80 6e 20 4e 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 54 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c 6f 67 79 7d 00 20 20 20 20 n.Nature.and.in.Technology}.....
fea0 20 20 20 20 41 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 ....A.plasma.is.the.state.of.mat
fec0 74 65 72 20 68 6f 74 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 67 61 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 ter.hotter.than.a.gas..The.diffe
fee0 72 65 6e 63 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 70 6c 61 73 6d 61 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a rence.is.that.plasmas.have.ioniz
ff00 65 64 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 ed.particles.(i.e..electrons.are
ff20 20 64 65 74 61 63 68 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 62 79 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2e .detached.from.atoms.by.energy).
ff40 20 54 68 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 70 6c 61 73 .The.temperature.of.thermal.plas
ff60 6d 61 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 76 61 72 69 65 74 79 29 20 63 61 mas.(the.most.common.variety).ca
ff80 6e 20 62 65 20 74 68 6f 75 73 61 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 20 64 65 67 72 65 65 73 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 n.be.thousands.of.degrees.or.mor
ffa0 65 2e 20 54 68 65 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 69 74 79 2c 20 61 72 65 e..They.conduct.electricity,.are
ffc0 20 63 6f 6d 70 72 65 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 68 61 76 65 20 6e 6f 20 64 65 66 69 6e .compressible,.and.have.no.defin
ffe0 69 74 65 20 73 68 61 70 65 20 6f 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 00 ite.shape.or.volume.like.gases..
10000 61 64 00 00 ed 00 00 00 61 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 16 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 2c 0f 00 00 2b 0f 00 00 ad......a...............,...+...
10020 9c 0e 00 00 6a 0e 00 00 8e 0d 00 00 58 0d 00 00 46 0c 00 00 45 0c 00 00 46 0b 00 00 45 0b 00 00 ....j.......X...F...E...F...E...
10040 97 0a 00 00 70 0a 00 00 51 0a 00 00 2b 0a 00 00 45 08 00 00 44 08 00 00 e1 06 00 00 c7 06 00 00 ....p...Q...+...E...D...........
10060 bb 04 00 00 9a 04 00 00 94 01 00 00 61 01 00 00 60 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ............a...`...............
10080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
100a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
100c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
100e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
10160 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 46 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f ..\subsubsection{The.Formation.o
10180 66 20 43 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 4c 61 74 74 69 63 65 73 7d 00 09 49 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 f.Crystal.Lattices}..Ions.are.ty
101a0 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 6e 20 65 78 74 72 61 20 65 6c 65 63 pically.atoms.with.an.extra.elec
101c0 74 72 6f 6e 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 6d 61 64 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 75 tron,.but.ions.can.be.made.of.mu
101e0 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 28 70 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 69 6f 6e 73 29 2e 20 ltiple.atoms.(polyatomic.ions)..
10200 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 63 74 20 61 73 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 61 These.ions.act.as.single.units.a
10220 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 20 63 6f nd.are.always.bonded.together.co
10240 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 6c 79 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 69 73 20 64 69 73 74 72 69 62 75 valently..The.charge.is.distribu
10260 74 65 64 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 74 69 72 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 62 ted.across.the.entire.molecule.b
10280 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 75 6e 69 74 20 69 73 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 6c 79 20 62 6f ecause.the.unit.is.covalently.bo
102a0 6e 64 65 64 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 75 73 20 73 68 61 72 65 73 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 20 nded.and.thus.shares.electrons..
102c0 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f This.can.also.cause.some.notatio
102e0 6e 61 6c 20 71 75 69 72 6b 73 20 2d 2d 2d 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 68 65 6d 69 nal.quirks.---.mostly.that.chemi
10300 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 41 6c 5f 32 28 43 4f 5f 33 29 cal.formulas.such.as.$Al_2(CO_3)
10320 5f 33 24 20 63 61 6e 20 65 78 69 73 74 2e 20 50 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 _3$.can.exist..Polyatomic.ions.i
10340 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 6e 69 74 72 69 74 65 73 2c 20 6e 69 74 72 61 74 65 73 2c 20 73 75 6c 66 69 nclude.nitrites,.nitrates,.sulfi
10360 74 65 2c 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 61 74 65 2c 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 75 6d 2c 20 63 79 61 6e 69 64 65 te,.carbonate,.ammonium,.cyanide
10380 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 75 6d 65 72 6f 75 73 20 6f 74 68 65 72 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 74 72 61 64 69 ,.and.numerous.others..The.tradi
103a0 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 61 6c 67 65 62 72 61 69 63 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 tional.algebraic.calculation.of.
103c0 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 61 70 70 6c 69 65 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 69 73 ion.counts.still.applies.in.this
103e0 20 63 61 73 65 3a 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 41 20 .case:.for.an.ion.with.charge.A.
10400 61 6e 64 20 61 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 20 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 42 2c 20 and.a.second.ion.with.charge.B,.
10420 74 68 65 79 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 75 6e 64 20 6f 66 20 24 41 5f 7b they.form.an.ionic.bound.of.$A_{
10440 42 7d 42 5f 7b 41 7d 24 20 28 73 69 6d 70 6c 69 66 69 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2c B}B_{A}$.(simplified.to.a.ratio,
10460 20 61 6e 64 20 61 73 73 75 6d 69 6e 67 20 41 20 61 6e 64 20 42 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 .and.assuming.A.and.B.represent.
10480 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 the.respective.elements)...\subs
104a0 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 49 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 49 72 6f 6e ubsection{Polyatomic.Ions}..Iron
104c0 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 73 74 65 ic.compounds.form.crystals.inste
104e0 61 64 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 20 41 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 69 73 20 22 61 ad.of.molecules..A.crystal.is."a
10500 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 .solid.in.which.the.particles.ar
10520 65 20 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 72 65 67 75 6c 61 72 2c 20 72 65 70 65 61 74 69 e.arranged.in.a.regular,.repeati
10540 6e 67 20 70 61 74 74 65 72 6e 2e 22 20 54 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 ng.pattern.".The.crystal.lattice
10560 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 .is.the.structure.of.this.given.
10580 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 28 68 6f 77 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2f 69 crystal.(how.exactly.the.atoms/i
105a0 6f 6e 73 20 61 6c 74 65 72 6e 61 74 65 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 ons.alternate.throughout.the.cry
105c0 73 74 61 6c 29 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 stal)..Because.ionic.bonds.don't
105e0 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 .form.molecules,.their.chemical.
10600 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 69 73 20 61 20 22 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 75 6e 69 74 2c 22 20 74 68 65 formula.is.a."formula.unit,".the
10620 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 75 6e 69 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 .smallest.unit.of.the.compound.i
10640 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 74 68 n.the.crystal..This.is.always.th
10660 65 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 73 74 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 74 e.simplest.ratio..For.example,.t
10680 68 65 72 65 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 6e 65 76 65 72 20 62 65 20 61 20 24 4e 61 5f 32 43 6c 5f 32 24 20 here.will.never.be.a.$Na_2Cl_2$.
106a0 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 69 73 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 69 66 79 20 74 6f 20 24 because.this.would.simplify.to.$
106c0 4e 61 43 6c 24 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 72 79 73 74 61 6c 73 7d NaCl$...\subsubsection{Crystals}
106e0 00 09 46 6f 72 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2c 20 6e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 ..For.ionic.bonding,.note.that.t
10700 68 69 73 20 66 69 6e 61 6c 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6d 61 6e 69 66 65 73 74 73 20 his.final.requirement.manifests.
10720 69 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 66 6f 72 6d in.metal.and.nonmetal.atoms.form
10740 69 6e 67 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 62 ing.ionic.bonds.with.the.metal.b
10760 65 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 20 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 29 20 61 6e 64 20 ecoming.a.cation.(positive).and.
10780 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 20 28 the.nonmetal.becoming.an.anion.(
107a0 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 68 61 70 70 65 6e 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 negative)..This.happens.because.
107c0 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 72 61 6e 73 66 65 72 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 the.electrons.transfer.from.the.
107e0 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 20 66 69 6c 6c 69 6e metal.to.the.nonmetal.for.fillin
10800 67 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 68 6f 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 g.valence.shells,.holding.the.at
10820 6f 6d 73 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6d 61 67 6e 65 74 69 oms.together.with.electromagneti
10840 73 6d 2e 00 00 09 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 69 73 20 61 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 76 sm....Ionic.bonding.is.a.relativ
10860 65 6c 79 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 ely.simple.type.of.bond.where.th
10880 65 20 6d 61 6a 6f 72 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 73 74 61 79 20 69 6e 20 e.majority.of.electrons.stay.in.
108a0 74 68 65 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 64 65 the.valence.of.one.atom..This.de
108c0 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 74 72 69 63 74 69 6f 6e finition.defines.the.restriction
108e0 20 6f 66 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 69 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 6e 65 67 61 74 .of.difference.in.electron.negat
10900 69 76 69 74 79 3a 20 61 6e 79 20 74 77 6f 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d ivity:.any.two.elements.can.form
10920 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 .an.ionic.bond.if.the.difference
10940 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 69 65 73 20 .of.their.electron.negativities.
10960 24 3e 31 2e 37 24 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f $>1.7$..The.charge.of.the.ions.o
10980 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 61 20 64 69 f.a.given.element.also.make.a.di
109a0 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 2e 20 49 6e 20 61 64 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 6d fference..In.addition,.only.elem
109c0 65 6e 74 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 69 6f 6e 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 ents.with.different.ion.charges.
109e0 28 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 24 41 6c 5e 7b 2b 33 7d 24 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d (for.example,.$Al^{+3}$.can.form
10a00 20 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 24 4f 5e 7b 2d 32 7d 24 2c 20 62 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 20 24 .a.bond.with.$O^{-2}$,.but.not.$
10a20 43 61 5e 7b 2b 32 7d 24 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f Ca^{+2}$)..........\subsubsectio
10a40 6e 7b 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e n{Ionic.Bonding}.....\subsection
10a60 7b 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 7d 00 5c 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 {Ionic.Bonding}.\section{Chemica
10a80 6c 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 l.Bonds.and.Compounds}.........P
10aa0 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f 72 74 20 hysical.changes.are.of.the.sort.
10ac0 6f 66 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 2c 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 2c 20 63 75 74 74 69 6e 67 2c 20 61 6e of.melting,.boiling,.cutting,.an
10ae0 64 20 62 65 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 d.bending..Chemical.changes.are.
10b00 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f 72 74 20 6f 66 20 62 75 72 6e 69 6e 67 2c 20 63 6f 6f 6b 69 6e 67 2c of.the.sort.of.burning,.cooking,
10b20 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 69 72 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 .water.reactions,.and.air.reacti
10b40 6f 6e 73 2e 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 53 6f 6d 65 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 64 69 ons...........Some.possible.indi
10b60 63 61 74 6f 72 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 28 6d 65 61 cators.of.a.chemical.change.(mea
10b80 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 64 69 63 61 74 6f 72 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f ning.that.these.indicators.do.no
10ba0 74 20 63 6f 6e 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 73 68 6f 77 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e t.conclusively.show.that.a.given
10bc0 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 73 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 29 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 63 6f 6c .change.is.chemical).include.col
10be0 6f 72 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 64 69 73 61 70 70 65 61 72 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 or.change,.solid.disappearance,.
10c00 67 61 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 70 72 65 63 69 70 69 74 61 74 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 gas.formation,.precipitate.forma
10c20 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 69 67 68 74 20 61 6e 64 20 68 65 61 74 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 tion,.and.light.and.heat.product
10c40 69 6f 6e 2e 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 41 6e 61 6c 6f 67 6f 75 73 20 74 6f 20 63 68 65 6d 69 ion...........Analogous.to.chemi
10c60 63 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2c 20 63 68 61 cal.and.physical.properties,.cha
10c80 6e 67 65 73 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 65 20 64 69 76 69 64 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 74 77 nges.can.also.be.divided.into.tw
10ca0 6f 20 63 61 74 65 67 6f 72 69 65 73 2e 20 49 66 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 o.categories..If.chemical.proper
10cc0 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 61 20 63 68 ties.of.a.substance.change,.a.ch
10ce0 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 68 61 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 72 65 64 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 emical.change.has.occurred..Howe
10d00 76 65 72 2c 20 69 66 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 ver,.if.only.physical.properties
10d20 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 61 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 .of.a.substance.change,.a.physic
10d40 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 68 61 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 72 65 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 al.change.has.occurred..........
10d60 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 50 68 79 73 \subsubsection{Chemical.and.Phys
10d80 69 63 61 6c 20 43 68 61 6e 67 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 43 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 ical.Changes}.........Characteri
10da0 73 74 69 63 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 stic.properties.are.intensive.pr
10dc0 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 79 20 61 20 73 75 operties.which.can.identify.a.su
10de0 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 bstance..These.can.include.color
10e00 2c 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 2f 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 2c 20 64 65 6e 73 69 74 79 ,.melting/boiling.point,.density
10e20 20 61 74 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2f 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 .at.standard.temperature/pressur
10e40 65 2c 20 6c 75 73 74 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 69 6c 69 74 79 20 6f 72 20 64 e,.luster,.and.malleability.or.d
10e60 75 63 74 69 6c 69 74 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e uctility..........\subsubsection
10e80 7b 43 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 {Characteristic.Properties}.....
10ea0 20 20 20 20 49 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 ....Intensive.properties.include
10ec0 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 2f 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 2c 20 64 65 6e 73 69 74 79 .boiling/melting.points,.density
10ee0 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 2e 20 45 78 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 ,.and.conductivity..Extensive.pr
10f00 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 6d 61 73 73 2c 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 2c 20 61 operties.include.mass,.volume,.a
10f20 6e 64 20 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 2e 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f nd.length...........Physical.pro
10f40 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 66 75 72 74 68 65 72 20 64 69 76 69 64 65 64 20 69 6e 74 6f perties.are.further.divided.into
10f60 20 74 77 6f 20 63 61 74 65 67 6f 72 69 65 73 3a 20 69 6e 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 70 72 6f 70 .two.categories:.intensive.pprop
10f80 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 28 64 6f 65 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 erties.(does.not.change.with.the
10fa0 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 29 20 61 6e 64 20 65 78 74 65 6e .amount.of.the.sample).and.exten
10fc0 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 28 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 sive.properties.(changes.with.th
10fe0 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 29 2e 00 e.amount.of.substance.present)..
11000 61 64 00 00 f9 00 00 00 59 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 11 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 46 0e 00 00 0c 0e 00 00 ad......Y...............F.......
11020 a2 0c 00 00 80 0c 00 00 58 0c 00 00 cf 0a 00 00 ce 0a 00 00 52 08 00 00 1a 08 00 00 03 07 00 00 ........X...........R...........
11040 02 07 00 00 1e 06 00 00 fc 05 00 00 34 03 00 00 06 03 00 00 82 01 00 00 59 01 00 00 58 01 00 00 ............4...........Y...X...
11060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
110a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
110c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
110e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
11140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 ..........................\subsu
11160 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 54 72 69 70 6c 65 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 bsection{Double.and.Triple.Bonds
11180 7d 00 09 57 68 69 6c 65 20 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 69 73 }..While.a.full.valence.shell.is
111a0 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 65 .typically.always.most.stable,.e
111c0 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c lements.such.as.transition.metal
111e0 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6a 75 73 74 20 s.which.can.have.more.than.just.
11200 74 68 65 20 38 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 the.8.standard.valence.electrons
11220 2c 20 61 6e 20 65 78 70 61 6e 64 65 64 20 6f 63 74 65 74 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 65 78 70 61 6e ,.an.expanded.octet..These.expan
11240 64 65 64 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 ded.octets.have.unique.Lewis.Str
11260 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2c 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 20 63 65 6e 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f uctures,.generally.a.central.ato
11280 6d 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6f 74 68 65 m.without.valence.electrons.othe
112a0 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 28 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 r.than.bonding.electrons.(still.
112c0 66 69 6c 6c 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 6f 63 74 65 74 20 62 79 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 6f 74 filling.the.octet.by.making.anot
112e0 68 65 72 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 65 77 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 her.shell.the.new.valence.electr
11300 6f 6e 73 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 ons)...\subsubsection{Exceptions
11320 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 4f 63 74 65 74 20 52 75 6c 65 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 6f 66 .to.the.Octet.Rule}..The.name.of
11340 20 74 68 65 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 73 68 6f 77 20 76 61 6c 65 6e .the.notation.used.to.show.valen
11360 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 79 ce.electrons.are.called.Lewis.Sy
11380 6d 62 6f 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 73 79 6d mbols..These.have.a.chemical.sym
113a0 62 6f 6c 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 4e 65 24 20 6f 72 20 24 42 24 29 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 bol.(such.as.$Ne$.or.$B$).at.the
113c0 20 63 65 6e 74 65 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 64 .center.with.valence.electrons.d
113e0 72 61 77 6e 20 61 72 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 74 2c 20 73 70 72 65 61 64 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 76 61 rawn.around.it,.spreading.the.va
11400 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 73 20 70 6f lence.electrons.as.equally.as.po
11420 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 61 6d 6f 6e 67 73 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 64 65 73 20 28 69 66 20 74 68 61 ssible.amongst.the.sides.(if.tha
11440 74 27 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 75 6e 65 76 65 6e 20 73 69 64 t's.not.possible,.the.uneven.sid
11460 65 28 73 29 20 61 72 65 20 75 6e 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 61 6e 74 29 2e 20 54 6f 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 e(s).are.unimportant)..To.genera
11480 74 65 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 64 69 61 67 72 61 6d 2c 20 6f 6e 65 te.a.large.molecule.diagram,.one
114a0 20 64 72 61 77 73 20 61 20 22 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 2e 22 20 54 68 65 73 .draws.a."Lewis.Structure.".Thes
114c0 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 77 61 79 20 61 73 e.are.created.in.the.same.way.as
114e0 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 64 69 61 67 72 61 6d 73 20 61 .simple.covalent.bond.diagrams.a
11500 72 65 20 28 61 20 74 72 69 76 69 61 6c 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 4c 65 77 69 73 re.(a.trivial.example.of.a.Lewis
11520 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 29 2c 20 62 79 20 64 72 61 77 69 6e 67 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 6c 69 6e .Structure),.by.drawing.bond.lin
11540 65 73 20 28 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 29 es.(representing.covalent.bonds)
11560 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 66 74 65 72 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 4c 65 77 69 73 .between.atoms.after.their.Lewis
11580 20 53 79 6d 62 6f 6c 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 62 65 65 6e 20 6e 6f 74 65 64 2e 20 41 73 20 61 20 67 .Symbols.have.been.noted..As.a.g
115a0 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 20 72 75 6c 65 2c 20 6c 65 66 74 6f 76 65 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 eneral.rule,.leftover.electrons.
115c0 61 72 65 20 6e 65 78 74 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 63 65 6e 74 72 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 77 68 65 are.next.to.the.central.atom.whe
115e0 6e 20 64 72 61 77 69 6e 67 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 n.drawing.Lewis.structures...\su
11600 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 7d 00 09 57 bsubsection{Lewis.Structures}..W
11620 68 65 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 73 20 6d here.electronegativity.differs.m
11640 6f 72 65 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 28 24 5c 67 65 71 20 30 2e 35 24 29 2c 20 ore.significantly.($\geq.0.5$),.
11660 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 75 6e 65 71 75 61 6c the.electrons.are.shared.unequal
11680 6c 79 20 61 6e 64 20 61 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 70 73 2e 20 48 6f ly.and.a.polar.bond.develops..Ho
116a0 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 wever,.these.polar.bonds.are.not
116c0 20 61 73 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 61 73 20 61 6e 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 2c 20 62 65 69 .as.strong.as.an.ionic.bond,.bei
116e0 6e 67 20 6a 75 73 74 20 61 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 62 75 69 6c 64 75 70 ng.just.a.partial.charge.buildup
11700 2e 00 00 09 49 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 ....In.all.covalent.bonds.betwee
11720 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 74 79 70 65 2c 20 74 68 n.two.atoms.of.the.same.type,.th
11740 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 69 73 20 70 72 65 63 69 73 65 6c 79 e.electronegativity.is.precisely
11760 20 65 71 75 61 6c 2c 20 73 6f 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 64 69 .equal,.so.there.is.no.charge.di
11780 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 61 63 72 6f 73 73 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 fference.across.the.bond..This.c
117a0 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 20 22 6e 6f 6e 70 6f 6c 61 72 22 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 alled.a."nonpolar".bond..This.ca
117c0 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 77 69 74 68 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 61 74 6f 6d n.also.occur.with.different.atom
117e0 73 20 6f 66 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 69 65 73 s.of.similar.electronegativities
11800 20 28 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 24 5c 6c 65 71 20 30 2e 34 24 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 .(difference.$\leq.0.4$)...\subs
11820 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 71 75 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 55 6e 65 71 75 61 6c 20 53 68 61 72 ubsection{Equal.and.Unequal.Shar
11840 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 ing.of.Electrons}..The.number.of
11860 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 .valence.electrons.a.given.atom.
11880 68 61 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 61 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e has.can.be.determined.as.mention
118a0 65 64 20 69 6e 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 ed.in.earlier.lessons..This.numb
118c0 65 72 20 6f 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e er.of.valence.electrons.is.often
118e0 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 64 6f 74 73 20 73 75 72 72 6f 75 6e 64 69 6e 67 .represented.by.dots.surrounding
11900 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 77 68 65 6e 20 75 6e 62 6f 6e .the.atom,.especially.when.unbon
11920 64 65 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 6d 61 69 6e 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 ded..The.notation.remains.the.sa
11940 6d 65 20 77 68 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 2c 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 22 me.when.bonded,.except.certain."
11960 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 22 20 61 72 65 20 73 68 6f 77 6e 20 6f 6e 20 bonding.electrons".are.shown.on.
11980 74 68 65 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 73 69 64 65 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6c 65 74 74 65 72 73 20 the.shared.side.of.both.letters.
119a0 28 69 74 20 6c 6f 6f 6b 73 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 22 24 48 3a 46 24 22 29 2e 20 42 (it.looks.similar.to."$H:F$")..B
119c0 79 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 6f y.convention,.this.single.bond.o
119e0 66 20 74 77 6f 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 73 68 6f 72 74 65 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 f.two.electrons.is.shortened.to.
11a00 61 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6c 69 6e 65 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 22 24 48 2d 46 24 22 29 2e 20 a.singular.line.(like."$H-F$")..
11a20 54 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 The.other.valence.electrons.are.
11a40 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 73 20 22 6e 6f 6e 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 65 63 74 referred.to.as."nonbonding.elect
11a60 72 6f 6e 73 2e 22 20 54 68 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 rons.".The.bonds.which.share.the
11a80 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 73 20 22 73 .electrons.are.referred.to.as."s
11aa0 69 67 6d 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 22 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 6f 76 65 72 6c 61 70 70 igma.bonds".if.they.are.overlapp
11ac0 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 00 00 09 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 61 ing.orbitals....Covalent.bonds.a
11ae0 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 69 6e re.different.from.ionic.bonds.in
11b00 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 62 6f .that.electrons.are.a.part.of.bo
11b20 74 68 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 74 69 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 th.atoms.at.the.same.time..These
11b40 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 65 78 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 .form.exclusively.between.nonmet
11b60 61 6c 73 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 63 6f 76 als..Similar.to.ionic.bonds,.cov
11b80 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 alent.bonds.occur.because.it.is.
11ba0 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 6f 75 74 65 72 more.stable.to.have.a.full.outer
11bc0 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 6f 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2d 2d 2d 74 68 .shell.of.valence.electrons---th
11be0 65 20 6f 63 74 65 74 20 72 75 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 24 48 5f 32 24 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 e.octet.rule..The.$H_2$.molecule
11c00 2c 20 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 ,.for.example,.forms.because.the
11c20 79 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 76 69 73 75 61 6c 20 65 6c y.share.their.singular.visual.el
11c40 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ectrons.with.eachother..........
11c60 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 20 4f 76 65 72 6c 61 70 7d 00 \subsubsection{Orbital.Overlap}.
11c80 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 ....\subsection{Covalent.Bonding
11ca0 7d 00 09 48 69 67 68 65 72 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 6d 65 61 6e 20 }..Higher.lattice.energies.mean.
11cc0 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 that.a.given.crystal.is.more.sta
11ce0 62 6c 65 20 2d 2d 20 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 68 69 67 68 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 ble.--.causing.high.melting.and.
11d00 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 boiling.points..This.also.makes.
11d20 74 68 65 6d 20 68 61 72 64 2c 20 62 75 74 20 69 74 20 72 65 64 75 63 65 73 20 73 6f 6c 75 62 69 them.hard,.but.it.reduces.solubi
11d40 6c 69 74 79 20 69 6e 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 2d 2d 2d 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 lity.in.water.because.---.to.dis
11d60 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 2d 2d 2d 20 74 68 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 solve.---.the.ionic.bonds.have.t
11d80 6f 20 62 65 20 62 72 6f 6b 65 6e 20 64 6f 77 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f o.be.broken.down..These.ionic.bo
11da0 6e 64 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 68 61 76 65 20 76 65 72 79 20 6c 6f 77 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 nds.also.have.very.low.conductiv
11dc0 69 74 79 20 61 73 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 68 69 67 ity.as.solids,.but.they.have.hig
11de0 68 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 61 73 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 6f 72 20 69 6e 20 h.conductivity.as.liquids.or.in.
11e00 61 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 a.solution...\subsubsection{Prop
11e20 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 52 65 73 75 6c 74 61 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 4c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 45 6e erties.Resultant.from.Lattice.En
11e40 65 72 67 79 7d 00 09 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6c 61 ergy}..Ionic.bonds.often.form.la
11e60 74 74 69 63 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 6c ttices.because.lattices.have.a.l
11e80 6f 77 65 72 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 6e 20 6c 6f 6e 65 20 ower.potential.energy.than.lone.
11ea0 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 74 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 molecules,.making.it.more.stable
11ec0 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 .and.causing.energy.to.be.releas
11ee0 65 64 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 2e 20 4c 61 74 74 69 ed.when.the.crystal.forms..Latti
11f00 63 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 73 20 74 68 69 73 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 ce.energy.describes.this.amount.
11f20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 4c 61 74 74 69 63 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 of.energy..Lattice.energy.follow
11f40 73 20 61 20 66 65 77 20 74 72 65 6e 64 73 2e 20 49 74 20 69 73 20 67 72 65 61 74 65 72 20 66 6f s.a.few.trends..It.is.greater.fo
11f60 72 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 6c 69 74 68 69 75 6d 20 69 6e 20 r.small.ions.such.as.lithium.in.
11f80 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 69 73 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 73 6f 64 69 75 6d 2e 20 49 74 20 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f comparison.to.sodium..It.is.also
11fa0 20 67 72 65 61 74 65 72 20 66 6f 72 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 63 68 .greater.for.ions.with.larger.ch
11fc0 61 72 67 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 66 61 63 74 arges.because.both.of.these.fact
11fe0 6f 72 73 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 73 74 72 65 6e 67 74 68 2e 00 ors.cause.higher.bond.strength..
12000 61 64 00 00 1e 00 00 00 a6 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 1b 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 82 0e 00 00 81 0e 00 00 ad..............................
12020 94 0d 00 00 6e 0d 00 00 3b 0c 00 00 09 0c 00 00 11 0b 00 00 ef 0a 00 00 c6 0a 00 00 8a 0a 00 00 ....n...;.......................
12040 79 0a 00 00 62 0a 00 00 41 0a 00 00 20 0a 00 00 11 0a 00 00 6f 08 00 00 4b 08 00 00 90 06 00 00 y...b...A...........o...K.......
12060 6a 06 00 00 f3 03 00 00 99 02 00 00 81 02 00 00 a4 01 00 00 a3 01 00 00 0d 01 00 00 e6 00 00 00 j...............................
12080 a6 00 00 00 a5 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
120a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6e 74 ..............\subsubsection{Int
120c0 72 61 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 76 73 20 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 46 6f ramolecular.vs.Intermolecular.Fo
120e0 72 63 65 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 rces}.....\subsection{Intermolec
12100 75 6c 61 72 20 46 6f 72 63 65 73 7d 00 09 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 62 72 61 ular.Forces}..Alloys.include.bra
12120 73 73 20 28 63 6f 70 70 65 72 20 5c 26 20 7a 69 6e 63 29 2c 20 72 6f 73 65 20 67 6f 6c 64 20 28 ss.(copper.\&.zinc),.rose.gold.(
12140 67 6f 6c 64 20 5c 26 20 63 6f 70 70 65 72 29 2c 20 62 72 6f 6e 7a 65 20 28 63 6f 70 70 65 72 20 gold.\&.copper),.bronze.(copper.
12160 5c 26 20 74 69 6e 20 6f 72 20 61 6c 75 6d 69 6e 75 6d 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 65 65 6c 20 28 \&.tin.or.aluminum),.and.steel.(
12180 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 69 72 6f 6e 2c 20 63 68 72 6f 6d 69 75 6d 2c 20 5c 26 20 6e 69 63 6b 65 6c mostly.iron,.chromium,.\&.nickel
121a0 29 2e 00 00 09 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 )....Alloys.are.a.type.of.mixtur
121c0 65 2e 20 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 65 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 62 79 20 6d e..Alloys.are.mixtures.made.by.m
121e0 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 74 elting.together.metals.and.are.t
12200 68 75 73 20 68 6f 6d 6f 67 65 6e 6f 75 73 2e 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 6c hus.homogenous..Properties.of.al
12220 6c 6f 79 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 loys.are.different.from.the.prop
12240 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 2c 20 erties.of.its.composite.metals,.
12260 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 77 68 61 74 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 74 68 65 6d 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 2e which.is.what.makes.them.useful.
12280 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 6c 6c 6f 79 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 62 61 ..\subsubsection{Alloys}..The.ba
122a0 6e 64 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 73 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 6c 75 73 74 72 nd.theory.explains.metals'.lustr
122c0 6f 75 73 6e 65 73 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6d 6f ousness.because.the.electrons.mo
122e0 76 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 62 61 6e 64 73 20 28 73 68 61 72 65 64 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c ve.between.bands.(shared.orbital
12300 73 29 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 73 20 6c 69 67 68 74 2c s).when.the.metal.absorbs.light,
12320 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 73 75 63 63 65 73 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 64 2d .which.is.successively.released-
12340 2d 2d 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 6f 73 63 69 6c --causing.the.electrons.to.oscil
12360 6c 61 74 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 62 61 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 late.between.bands..These.proper
12380 74 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 65 78 61 63 65 72 62 61 74 65 64 20 62 ties.are.typically.exacerbated.b
123a0 79 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 6f 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 y.large.numbers.of.valence.elect
123c0 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 2c 20 61 73 20 rons.and.large.atomic.radii,.as.
123e0 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 2e 00 09 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 66 20 6d mentioned.earlier...Because.of.m
12400 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 etals'.delocalized.electrons,.th
12420 65 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 ey.have.certain.useful.propertie
12440 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 68 69 67 68 20 68 65 61 74 2f 65 6c 65 63 74 s..These.include.high.heat/elect
12460 72 69 63 61 6c 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 64 rical.conductivity.because.the.d
12480 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 65 61 elocalized.electrons.can.flow.ea
124a0 73 69 6c 79 20 74 68 72 6f 75 67 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 sily.through.the.substance,.and.
124c0 74 68 6f 73 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 63 61 72 72 79 20 74 those.same.electrons.can.carry.t
124e0 68 65 72 6d 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 65 20 68 69 67 68 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f hermal.energy..The.high.number.o
12500 66 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 61 74 f.valence.electrons.and.large.at
12520 6f 6d 69 63 20 72 61 64 69 69 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 69 62 75 74 65 20 74 6f 20 74 68 omic.radii.also.contribute.to.th
12540 65 20 65 61 73 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 e.ease.of.movement.of.the.deloca
12560 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 69 72 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 75 6e 69 lized.electrons..Their.other.uni
12580 71 75 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 69 6c 69 74 79 2c 20 que.properties.of.malleability,.
125a0 64 75 63 74 69 6c 69 74 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 75 73 74 65 72 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 ductility,.and.luster.can.also.b
125c0 65 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 6e 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 63 68 e.explained.with.their.atomic.ch
125e0 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 74 69 63 73 2e 20 54 68 65 69 72 20 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 aracteristics..Their.delocalized
12600 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 22 66 6c 65 78 69 62 6c 65 22 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 .electrons.make."flexible".bonds
12620 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 75 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 .and.thus.allow.the.metal.to.be.
12640 6d 61 6c 6c 65 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 64 75 63 74 69 6c 65 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 malleable.and.ductile.instead.of
12660 20 62 72 69 74 74 6c 65 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 73 75 6c 74 .brittle...\subsubsection{Result
12680 61 6e 74 20 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 7d 00 09 49 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 6c 69 63 20 62 6f 6e ant.Properties}..In.metallic.bon
126a0 64 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 72 65 20 6f 76 65 72 6c 61 ds,.the.orbitals.that.are.overla
126c0 70 70 69 6e 67 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 22 6d pping.share.electrons,.making."m
126e0 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 22 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 olecular.orbitals".which.determi
12700 6e 65 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 62 61 62 6c 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 ne.the.probable.position.of.any.
12720 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 given.electron..The.large.number
12740 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 6d 65 61 .of.atoms.in.a.metal.crystal.mea
12760 6e 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 ns.that.there.is.a.large.number.
12780 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d of.molecular.orbitals.in.the.sam
127a0 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e e.crystal..These.orbitals.combin
127c0 65 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 22 62 61 6e 64 73 2c 22 20 61 73 20 70 72 65 64 69 63 74 65 64 20 e.to.form."bands,".as.predicted.
127e0 62 79 20 62 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 2d 2d 2d 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 by.band.theory---another.theory.
12800 6f 66 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 6c 69 63 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 68 61 73 20 6d 6f of.metallic.bonding.which.has.mo
12820 72 65 20 70 72 65 64 69 63 74 69 76 65 20 70 6f 77 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 re.predictive.power.than.the.ele
12840 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 73 65 61 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 65 63 ctron.sea...\subsubsection{Molec
12860 75 6c 61 72 20 4f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 73 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 ular.Orbitals}..These.properties
12880 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 22 64 65 6c 6f 63 61 6c 69 7a 65 64 20 65 6c 65 .create.metals'."delocalized.ele
128a0 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 22 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 6e 6f 74 20 61 73 73 6f ctrons,".where.they.are.not.asso
128c0 63 69 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 6e 20 61 ciated.with.a.specific.atom.in.a
128e0 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 62 75 74 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 73 68 61 72 65 .metal.crystal.but.instead.share
12900 64 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6e 75 63 6c 65 69 20 61 6e 64 20 72 6f 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 72 d.between.nuclei.and.roaming.thr
12920 6f 75 67 68 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 2e 20 54 68 65 oughout.the.crystal.lattice..The
12940 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 73 74 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 64 65 72 73 20 .simplest.model.which.considers.
12960 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 22 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 73 65 these.is.called.the."electron.se
12980 61 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 2c 22 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 73 a.model,".where.electrons.are.as
129a0 73 75 6d 65 64 20 74 6f 20 65 61 73 69 6c 79 20 66 6c 6f 77 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6e 75 63 sumed.to.easily.flow.between.nuc
129c0 6c 65 69 20 61 6e 64 20 73 65 72 76 65 20 61 73 20 22 67 6c 75 65 22 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 lei.and.serve.as."glue".for.the.
129e0 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 metal.atoms..This.model.describe
12a00 73 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 00 09 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 s.metal.bonding...\end{itemize}.
12a20 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 6f 77 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 .....\item.Low.ionization.energy
12a40 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 6f 77 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 69 74 ......\item.Low.electronegativit
12a60 79 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 4c 61 72 67 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 00 09 5c 62 65 67 69 6e y......\item.Large.atoms..\begin
12a80 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 09 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 {itemize}..Metals.have.propertie
12aa0 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 75 73 65 20 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 63 68 61 72 61 63 74 65 72 69 73 s.which.cause.unique.characteris
12ac0 74 69 63 73 3a 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 tics:.........\subsubsection{The
12ae0 20 45 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 53 65 61 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d .Electron.Sea}.....\subsection{M
12b00 65 74 61 6c 6c 69 63 20 42 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 7d 00 09 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f etallic.Bonding}..Covalent.compo
12b20 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 73 74 69 6e 67 75 69 73 68 61 62 6c 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 69 6f unds.are.distinguishable.from.io
12b40 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 62 79 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 nic.compounds.by.several.propert
12b60 69 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 64 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 ies..These.are.composed.of.molec
12b80 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 69 6f 6e 69 7a 65 20 69 6e 20 61 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f ules,.do.not.ionize.in.a.solutio
12ba0 6e 2c 20 70 6f 6f 72 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 n,.poorly.conduct.electrical.cha
12bc0 72 67 65 2c 20 70 6f 6f 72 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 75 63 74 20 68 65 61 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 66 rge,.poorly.conduct.heat,.and.of
12be0 74 65 6e 20 68 61 76 65 20 6c 6f 77 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 ten.have.low.melting.and.boiling
12c00 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 .points...\subsubsection{Propert
12c20 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 7d 00 09 52 65 73 6f ies.of.Covalent.Compounds}..Reso
12c40 6e 61 6e 63 65 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 78 63 nance.Structures.are.another.exc
12c60 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2e 20 57 68 65 6e eption.to.Lewis.Structures..When
12c80 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 63 6f 75 6c 64 .multiple.Lewis.Structures.could
12ca0 20 62 65 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 75 63 74 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 20 .be.possibly.constructed.from.a.
12cc0 67 69 76 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 given.molecular.formula.(such.as
12ce0 20 24 53 4f 5f 32 24 29 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6e 6f 74 65 64 20 62 .$SO_2$),.these.are.both.noted.b
12d00 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 78 70 65 72 69 6d 65 6e 74 61 6c 20 65 76 69 64 65 6e 63 65 20 73 75 67 ecause.experimental.evidence.sug
12d20 67 65 73 74 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 6c 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 gests.the.real.structure.of.mole
12d40 63 75 6c 65 73 20 69 73 20 61 20 62 6c 65 6e 64 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 73 6f 6e 61 6e 63 cules.is.a.blend.of.the.resonanc
12d60 65 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 e.structures...\subsubsection{Re
12d80 73 6f 6e 61 6e 63 65 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 7d 00 09 55 6e 6c 69 6b 65 20 73 69 6e 67 sonance.Structures}..Unlike.sing
12da0 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 le.bonds,.double.and.triple.bond
12dc0 73 20 75 73 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 73 69 67 6d 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 s.use.more.than.sigma.bonds..The
12de0 73 65 20 75 73 65 20 70 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 76 65 72 6c 61 70 20 6f 66 20 se.use.pi.bonds,.the.overlap.of.
12e00 70 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 70 61 72 61 6c 6c 65 6c p.orbitals..These.occur.parallel
12e20 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 63 75 72 72 65 6e 74 20 73 69 67 6d 61 20 62 6f 6e 64 2c 20 77 69 74 68 .to.the.current.sigma.bond,.with
12e40 20 6f 6e 65 20 70 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 61 6e .one.pi.bond.in.a.double.bond.an
12e60 64 20 74 77 6f 20 70 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e d.two.pi.bonds.in.a.triple.bond.
12e80 00 00 09 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 ...Another.exception.to.previous
12ea0 6c 79 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 53 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 ly.mentioned.Lewis.Structure.is.
12ec0 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 20 53 6f 6d 65 74 69 6d 65 73 2c 20 74 6f 20 66 69 double.bonding..Sometimes,.to.fi
12ee0 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 27 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 2c 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 77 6f 20 ll.atoms'.octets,.more.than.two.
12f00 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 73 68 61 72 65 64 2e 20 24 4f 5f 32 24 20 electrons.must.be.shared..$O_2$.
12f20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 6c 65 61 72 65 73 74 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 20 is.the.clearest.example.of.this.
12f40 2d 2d 20 77 69 74 68 20 36 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 73 68 61 --.with.6.valence.electrons,.sha
12f60 72 69 6e 67 20 74 77 6f 20 66 69 6c 6c 73 20 74 68 65 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 20 6f 66 20 62 6f 74 ring.two.fills.the.octets.of.bot
12f80 68 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 73 69 h..These.are.more.stable.than.si
12fa0 6e 67 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 24 4e 5f 32 24 20 68 61 73 20 74 6f 20 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 ngle.bonds..$N_2$.has.to.use.the
12fc0 20 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 20 65 78 74 65 6e 73 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 2c 20 74 72 69 70 .logical.extension.of.this,.trip
12fe0 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 74 6f 20 66 69 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 6f 63 74 65 74 73 2e 00 le.bonds,.to.fill.their.octets..
13000 61 64 00 00 c6 00 00 00 1e 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 0f 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 60 0e 00 00 40 0e 00 00 ad......................`...@...
13020 0c 0c 00 00 0b 0c 00 00 92 09 00 00 91 09 00 00 1d 09 00 00 f7 08 00 00 b4 04 00 00 7d 04 00 00 ............................}...
13040 70 03 00 00 3f 03 00 00 18 03 00 00 1f 01 00 00 1e 01 00 00 1d 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 p...?...........................
13060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
13080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
130a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
130c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
130e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
13100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 ................................
13120 57 68 65 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 6f 6e When.forming.ionic.compounds,.on
13140 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 6e 65 63 65 73 73 61 72 69 6c 79 20 e.of.the.atoms.will.necessarily.
13160 6c 6f 73 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 28 73 29 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 2c 20 61 lose.electron(s).to.the.other,.a
13180 6e 64 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 69 73 20 75 73 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 69 6d 73 20 66 6f 72 nd.because.this.usually.aims.for
131a0 20 61 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 .a.full.valence.shell.the.number
131c0 20 69 73 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 64 .is.typically.the.same.between.d
131e0 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 77 68 69 63 68 ifferent.bonds..The.number.which
13200 20 69 74 20 6c 6f 73 65 73 20 6f 72 20 67 61 69 6e 73 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 69 74 73 .it.loses.or.gains.is.called.its
13220 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 76 61 72 69 65 73 20 62 65 74 .oxidation.state,.and.varies.bet
13240 77 65 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 ween.atoms..Metals'.oxidations.a
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13280 32 2c 20 2b 33 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 2c 20 76 61 72 69 61 6e 74 20 6f 78 69 2,.+3,.and.multiple,.variant.oxi
132a0 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 66 6f 72 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 dation.states.for.transition.met
132c0 61 6c 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 20 67 72 6f 75 70 20 31 36 20 61 als..For.nonmetals.in.group.16.a
132e0 6e 64 20 31 37 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 nd.17,.the.oxidation.states.are.
13300 2d 32 20 61 6e 64 20 2d 31 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 -2.and.-1.respectively..........
13320 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 49 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 \subsubsection{Charge.of.Ions}..
13340 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 49 ...\subsection{Nomenclature.of.I
13360 6f 6e 69 63 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 7d 00 09 41 73 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6d onic.Compounds}..As.these.interm
13380 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 66 75 6e 64 61 6d 65 6e 74 61 6c 6c 79 20 63 68 olecular.forces.fundamentally.ch
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133c0 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 73 74 69 63 6b 20 74 6f 20 73 ,.they.can.be.used.to.stick.to.s
133e0 75 72 66 61 63 65 73 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 69 6e 20 67 65 63 6b 6f 73 27 20 66 65 65 74 urfaces.(such.as.in.geckos'.feet
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13460 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 6e 73 69 74 79 2e 00 09 5c 73 .melting.point,.and.density...\s
13480 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 70 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 49 6e 74 ubsubsection{Applications.of.Int
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134c0 6c 73 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 2c 20 75 6e 6c 69 6b 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 ls.forces,.unlike.hydrogen.bonds
134e0 2c 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 69 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 ,.occur.in.all.atoms..These.are.
13500 74 68 65 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 6f 72 20 72 65 70 75 6c 73 69 76 65 20 66 6f 72 63 the.attractive.or.repulsive.forc
13520 65 73 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 75 6e 65 76 65 6e 20 64 69 73 74 72 69 62 75 74 69 6f es.created.by.uneven.distributio
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13580 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 20 76 61 72 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 74 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 63 63 random.variation,.and.it.can.occ
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135e0 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2c 20 61 20 56 61 6e 20 64 65 72 20 57 61 61 6c 73 20 66 6f 72 63 .molecules,.a.Van.der.Waals.forc
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13680 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 41 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 56 61 6e 20 64 65 72 20 57 61 61 tion..Another.common.Van.der.Waa
136a0 6c 73 20 66 6f 72 63 65 20 69 73 20 64 69 70 6f 6c 65 2d 69 6e 64 75 63 65 64 20 64 69 70 6f 6c ls.force.is.dipole-induced.dipol
136c0 65 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 61 6e 64 20 e.interaction.between.polar.and.
136e0 6e 6f 6e 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 nonpolar.molecules..The.positive
13700 20 6f 72 20 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 65 6e 64 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 6d 6f .or.negative.end.of.the.polar.mo
13720 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 70 75 73 68 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 66 6f 72 63 65 20 61 77 61 lecule.pushes.the.same.force.awa
13740 79 20 28 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 72 65 70 65 6c 73 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 2c 20 70 6f y.(negative.repels.electrons,.po
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13780 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 6d 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 6e 64 75 63 65 64 20 ing.them.together..This.induced.
137a0 66 6f 72 63 65 20 69 73 20 77 65 61 6b 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 64 69 70 6f 6c 65 2d 64 69 force.is.weaker.than.a.dipole-di
137c0 70 6f 6c 65 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 20 74 68 69 72 64 20 56 61 6e 20 pole.interaction..The.third.Van.
137e0 64 65 72 20 57 61 61 6c 73 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 der.Waals.interaction.is.called.
13800 61 20 4c 6f 6e 64 6f 6e 20 64 69 73 70 65 72 73 69 6f 6e 20 66 6f 72 63 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 a.London.dispersion.force..This.
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13860 69 6e 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2c 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 in.all.atoms,.it.is.only.signifi
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138c0 2e 20 4c 6f 6e 64 6f 6e 20 64 69 73 70 65 72 73 69 6f 6e 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 63 61 75 73 65 ..London.dispersion.forces.cause
138e0 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 74 6f 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 .molecules.to.attract...\subsubs
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13980 62 75 69 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 62 6c 6f 63 6b 73 2e 00 00 09 48 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 building.blocks....Hydrogen.bond
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13a20 72 65 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 real.bond..The.properties.which.
13a40 69 74 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 73 20 28 77 68 65 6e 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 29 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 it.creates.(when.present).includ
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13ae0 20 66 6f 72 6d 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 63 61 73 65 73 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 .form),.and.in.some.cases.(such.
13b00 61 73 20 77 61 74 65 72 29 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 69 74 79 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 70 6f 6c 61 72 69 74 as.water).polarity..This.polarit
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13b40 6c 69 74 79 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 2e 20 45 74 68 61 6e 65 2c 20 61 20 6e 6f 6e 70 6f lity.properties..Ethane,.a.nonpo
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13b80 61 6c 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 6e 6f 6e 70 6f 6c 61 72 20 63 6f al.can.only.dissolve.nonpolar.co
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13bc0 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 64 69 73 73 6f 6c 76 65 20 69 6f .water.being.able.to.dissolve.io
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13c00 73 20 72 65 61 64 69 6c 79 2e 00 00 09 41 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 73 20 s.readily....A.hydrogen.bond.is.
13c20 22 74 68 65 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 68 79 64 72 "the.attraction.of.a.single.hydr
13c40 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 61 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 ogen.between.a.highly.electroneg
13c60 61 74 69 76 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 65 6c ative.atom.and.another.highly.el
13c80 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 20 69 6e 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e ectronegative.atom.in.a.differen
13ca0 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 6f 72 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 72 65 67 69 6f 6e t.molecule.or.a.different.region
13cc0 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 .of.a.large.molecule..These.are.
13ce0 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 65 65 6e 20 69 6e 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f commonly.seen.in.water.because.o
13d00 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 6e f.the.strongly.electronegative.n
13d20 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 2e 20 49 74 20 70 75 6c 6c 73 20 65 6c ature.of.the.oxygen..It.pulls.el
13d40 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 20 61 77 61 79 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 2c 20 ectrons.away.from.the.hydrogen,.
13d60 63 72 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 77 creating.a.charge.differential.w
13d80 68 69 63 68 20 61 63 74 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 61 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 62 hich.acts.like.a.hydrogen.bond.b
13da0 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 etween.hydrogens.and.oxygens.of.
13dc0 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 different.molecules..Note.that.h
13de0 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e ydrogen.bonding.only.occurs.when
13e00 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 6c 79 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 74 .hydrogens.are.directly.bonded.t
13e20 6f 20 68 69 67 68 6c 79 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 65 67 61 74 69 76 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 00 o.highly.electronegative.atoms..
13e40 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 48 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 7d 00 .\subsubsection{Hydrogen.Bonds}.
13e60 09 49 6e 74 72 61 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 61 72 65 2c 20 62 79 20 64 .Intramolecular.forces.are,.by.d
13e80 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 63 74 69 6e 67 20 77 69 74 68 69 6e 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 efinition,.acting.within.a.molec
13ea0 75 6c 65 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 28 63 ule..These.are.chemical.bonds.(c
13ec0 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 29 2e 20 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c ovalent.and.ionic)..Intermolecul
13ee0 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 61 63 74 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 ar.forces.act.between.molecules.
13f00 69 6e 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 2c 20 61 74 74 72 61 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 6f 72 20 in.a.substance,.attractively.or.
13f20 72 65 70 75 6c 73 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 61 66 66 65 63 74 20 69 6e repulsively..These.can.affect.in
13f40 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 teractions.between.molecules.and
13f60 20 68 61 76 65 20 33 20 63 6c 61 73 73 65 73 3a 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c .have.3.classes:.hydrogen.bonds,
13f80 20 4c 6f 6e 64 6f 6e 20 64 69 73 70 65 72 73 69 6f 6e 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 56 .London.dispersion.forces,.and.V
13fa0 61 6e 20 64 65 72 20 57 61 61 6c 73 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 2e 20 49 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 an.der.Waals.forces..Intermolecu
13fc0 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 77 65 61 lar.forces.are.significantly.wea
13fe0 6b 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 69 6e 74 72 61 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 2e 00 ker.than.intramolecular.forces..
14000 61 64 00 00 02 01 00 00 62 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 11 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 e2 0e 00 00 b1 0e 00 00 ad......b.......................
14020 23 0d 00 00 02 0d 00 00 70 0c 00 00 4d 0c 00 00 3c 09 00 00 08 09 00 00 cc 08 00 00 51 07 00 00 #.......p...M...<...........Q...
14040 35 07 00 00 84 05 00 00 63 05 00 00 2b 03 00 00 2a 03 00 00 63 01 00 00 62 01 00 00 61 01 00 00 5.......c...+...*...c...b...a...
14060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
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140c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
140e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
14100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
14120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
14140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
14160 00 00 00 09 41 63 69 64 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 77 6f 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 6d 65 74 ....Acids.have.two.different.met
14180 68 6f 64 73 20 62 79 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 64 2c 20 64 65 hods.by.which.they.are.named,.de
141a0 70 65 6e 64 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e 20 77 68 61 74 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 61 63 69 64 20 74 68 65 pending.on.what.type.of.acid.the
141c0 79 20 61 72 65 2e 20 42 69 6e 61 72 79 20 61 63 69 64 73 20 28 61 63 69 64 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 y.are..Binary.acids.(acids.with.
141e0 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 74 77 6f 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 29 20 61 72 65 20 5c 74 65 78 74 69 74 7b 68 exactly.two.atoms).are.\textit{h
14200 79 64 72 6f 2d 5b 6e 6f 6e 6d 65 74 61 6c 5d 2d 69 63 7d 2e 20 4f 78 79 61 63 69 64 73 20 28 61 ydro-[nonmetal]-ic}..Oxyacids.(a
14220 63 69 64 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 70 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 69 6e 20 74 75 cids.with.polyatomic.ions,.in.tu
14240 72 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 6f 6e 65 20 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 rn.with.one.or.more.oxygen.atoms
14260 29 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f ).change.dependent.on.the.type.o
14280 66 20 70 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 69 6f 6e 2e 20 5c 74 65 78 74 69 74 7b 2d 61 74 65 7d 20 f.polyatomic.ion..\textit{-ate}.
142a0 69 6f 6e 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 5c 74 65 78 74 69 74 7b 2d 69 63 7d 20 61 63 69 64 73 20 61 6e 64 ions.form.\textit{-ic}.acids.and
142c0 20 5c 74 65 78 74 69 74 7b 2d 69 74 65 7d 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 5c 74 65 78 74 .\textit{-ite}.anions.form.\text
142e0 69 74 7b 2d 6f 75 73 7d 20 61 63 69 64 73 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 6e 69 74 72 61 74 65 20 2d 3e 20 it{-ous}.acids.(e.g..nitrate.->.
14300 6e 69 74 72 69 63 20 61 63 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 69 74 72 69 74 65 20 2d 3e 20 6e 69 74 72 6f nitric.acid.and.nitrite.->.nitro
14320 75 73 20 61 63 69 64 29 2e 00 00 09 41 63 69 64 73 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 us.acid)....Acids.increase.the.c
14340 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 24 48 5e 2b 24 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 oncentration.of.$H^+$.ions.in.a.
14360 77 61 74 65 72 20 28 61 71 75 65 6f 75 73 29 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 water.(aqueous).solution..In.the
14380 20 73 61 6d 65 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 74 .same.solution,.bases.increase.t
143a0 68 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 24 4f 48 5e 2d 24 20 69 6f 6e 73 2e he.concentration.of.$OH^-$.ions.
143c0 20 42 6f 74 68 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 6f 72 20 63 6f 76 .Both.can.be.either.ionic.or.cov
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14400 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 61 6c 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 63 65 73 3a 20 61 63 69 64 73 20 67 .structural.differences:.acids.g
14420 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 48 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 enerally.contain.H.atoms.bonded.
14440 74 6f 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 72 20 70 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 69 6f 6e to.other.atoms.or.polyatomic.ion
14460 73 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 24 4f 48 5e 2d 24 s.and.ionic.bases.contain.$OH^-$
14480 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 6f 76 .in.their.formula..Note.that.cov
144a0 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 24 4f 48 5e 2d alent.bases.do.not.contain.$OH^-
144c0 24 2e 20 41 63 69 64 73 20 74 75 72 6e 20 62 6c 75 65 20 6c 69 74 6d 75 73 20 70 61 70 65 72 20 $..Acids.turn.blue.litmus.paper.
144e0 72 65 64 20 77 68 69 6c 65 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 74 75 72 6e 20 72 65 64 20 6c 69 74 6d 75 73 20 red.while.bases.turn.red.litmus.
14500 70 61 70 65 72 20 62 6c 75 65 2e 20 54 61 73 74 65 77 69 73 65 2c 20 61 63 69 64 73 20 74 61 73 paper.blue..Tastewise,.acids.tas
14520 74 65 20 73 6f 75 72 20 61 6e 64 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 74 61 73 74 65 20 62 69 74 74 65 72 2e 20 te.sour.and.bases.taste.bitter..
14540 42 61 73 65 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 66 65 65 6c 20 73 6c 69 70 70 65 72 79 20 6f 72 20 73 6f 61 70 Bases.also.feel.slippery.or.soap
14560 79 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 63 69 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 42 61 73 y...\subsubsection{Acids.and.Bas
14580 65 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 6d 61 6a 6f 72 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f es}..The.most.major.exception.to
145a0 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 72 75 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 72 61 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 6e 61 6d .these.rules.are.traditional.nam
145c0 65 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 64 69 68 79 es.such.as.water.instead.of.dihy
145e0 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 6d 6f 6e 6f 78 69 64 65 2c 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 61 64 69 drogen.monoxide,.where.the.tradi
14600 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 62 65 20 70 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 2e 20 tional.name.would.be.preferred..
14620 54 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 The.other.exception.are.compound
14640 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 2e 20 49 6e 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 63 6f 6d s.with.hydrogen..In.hydrogen.com
14660 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 pounds,.a.prefix.for.the.amount.
14680 6f 66 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 75 73 65 64 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 69 of.hydrogen.isn't.used.such.as.i
146a0 6e 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 73 75 6c 66 69 64 65 20 28 24 48 5f 32 53 24 29 20 6f 72 20 68 n.hydrogen.sulfide.($H_2S$).or.h
146c0 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 73 75 6c 66 61 74 65 20 28 24 48 5f 32 53 4f 5f 34 24 29 2e 20 48 6f 77 ydrogen.sulfate.($H_2SO_4$)..How
146e0 65 76 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 ever,.these.chemicals.are.often.
14700 61 63 69 64 69 63 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 6d 65 61 6e 73 20 74 68 65 79 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 acidic,.which.means.they.follow.
14720 75 6e 69 71 75 65 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 72 75 6c 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 unique.naming.rules...\subsubsec
14740 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 66 75 tion{Exceptions}..The.element.fu
14760 72 74 68 65 72 20 6c 65 66 74 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 rther.left.on.the.periodic.table
14780 20 69 73 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 24 43 4f 5f 32 24 20 69 73 .is.listed.first.(e.g..$CO_2$.is
147a0 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 64 69 6f 78 69 64 65 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 63 61 72 62 .carbon.dioxide,.not.oxygen.carb
147c0 69 64 65 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 65 6e 64 73 20 77 69 ide)..The.second.element.ends.wi
147e0 74 68 20 2d 69 64 65 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 64 69 6f 78 69 64 65 29 2e 20 4e th.-ide.(e.g..carbon.dioxide)..N
14800 75 6d 65 72 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 69 6e umerical.prefixes.are.used.to.in
14820 64 69 63 61 74 65 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 dicate.the.number.of.atoms.of.a.
14840 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 28 31 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 65 63 6f 6e 64 20 65 given.element.(1.of.the.second.e
14860 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 3d 6d 6f 6e 6f 2c 20 32 3d 64 69 2c 20 33 3d 74 72 69 2c 20 34 3d 74 65 74 72 lement=mono,.2=di,.3=tri,.4=tetr
14880 61 2c 20 35 3d 70 65 6e 74 61 2c 20 36 3d 68 65 78 29 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 69 6e 20 63 61 a,.5=penta,.6=hex).such.as.in.ca
148a0 72 62 6f 6e 20 74 65 74 72 61 63 68 6c 6f 72 69 64 65 20 6f 72 20 64 69 6e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e rbon.tetrachloride.or.dinitrogen
148c0 20 74 65 74 72 6f 78 69 64 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 .tetroxide..........\subsubsecti
148e0 6f 6e 7b 4e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 74 75 72 65 20 66 6f 72 20 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 43 6f 6d on{Nomenclature.for.Covalent.Com
14900 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 pounds}.....\subsection{Nomencla
14920 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 43 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 7d 00 09 41 73 20 ture.of.Covalent.Compounds}..As.
14940 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 2c 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 mentioned.earlier,.transition.me
14960 74 61 6c 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6e tals.are.an.exception.to.the.sin
14980 67 75 6c 61 72 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 20 gular.oxidation.states,.and.can.
149a0 65 61 63 68 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 64 69 66 each.form.multiple.ions.with.dif
149c0 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 64 20 61 6e 64 ferent.charges.because.the.d.and
149e0 20 66 20 6f 72 62 69 74 61 6c 73 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 73 74 61 62 .f.orbitals.allow.different.stab
14a00 6c 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 le.electron.configurations..Thes
14a20 65 20 68 61 76 65 20 6e 6f 20 65 61 73 69 6c 79 20 64 69 73 63 65 72 6e 69 62 6c 65 20 70 61 74 e.have.no.easily.discernible.pat
14a40 74 65 72 6e 2c 20 73 6f 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 65 61 73 69 65 73 74 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 6d 6f 72 69 tern,.so.it.is.easiest.to.memori
14a60 7a 65 20 6f 72 20 6c 6f 6f 6b 20 75 70 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 6f ze.or.look.up.oxidation.states.o
14a80 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 2e 20 57 68 65 6e f.a.given.transition.metal..When
14aa0 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 72 74 69 6e 67 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 73 20 77 69 .converting.chemical.formulas.wi
14ac0 74 68 20 74 72 61 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 73 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 th.transition.metals.to.the.name
14ae0 20 6f 66 20 74 68 61 74 20 69 6f 6e 2c 20 6f 6e 65 20 75 73 65 73 20 72 6f 6d 61 6e 20 6e 75 6d .of.that.ion,.one.uses.roman.num
14b00 65 72 61 6c 73 20 74 6f 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 79 20 74 68 65 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 erals.to.signify.the.oxidation.s
14b20 74 61 74 65 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 69 6e 20 24 4d 6e 4f 24 2c 20 74 68 65 tate..For.example,.in.$MnO$,.the
14b40 20 24 4d 6e 24 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 20 6f 66 20 24 2b 32 24 20 62 65 63 61 75 .$Mn$.has.a.charge.of.$+2$.becau
14b60 73 65 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 68 61 73 20 61 6e 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f se.oxygen.always.has.an.oxidatio
14b80 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 24 2d 32 24 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 n.state.of.$-2$.and.ionic.compou
14ba0 6e 64 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 30 20 6e 65 74 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 6d 65 61 6e nds.have.0.net.charge,.this.mean
14bc0 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 69 73 20 60 60 6d 61 67 6e 65 73 69 75 6d ing.that.the.name.is.``magnesium
14be0 20 28 49 49 29 20 6f 78 69 64 65 2e 27 27 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 72 6f 6d 61 6e 20 6e .(II).oxide.''.Note.that.roman.n
14c00 75 6d 65 72 61 6c 73 20 6f 75 67 68 74 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 77 68 65 6e 20 umerals.ought.be.used.only.when.
14c20 74 68 65 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 63 6f 6d the.metal.ions.have.multiple.com
14c40 6d 6f 6e 20 63 68 61 72 67 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 72 61 mon.charges...\subsubsection{Tra
14c60 6e 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 7d 00 09 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d nsition.Metals}..This.is.the.sam
14c80 65 20 61 73 20 6d 6f 6e 6f 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c e.as.monoatomic.ionic.compounds,
14ca0 20 62 75 74 20 77 69 74 68 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 2d 69 64 65 20 6d 6f 64 69 66 69 63 61 74 69 .but.without.the.-ide.modificati
14cc0 6f 6e 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 24 28 4e 48 on.for.anions..For.example,.$(NH
14ce0 5f 34 29 5f 32 43 4f 5f 33 24 20 69 73 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 75 6d 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 61 74 65 _4)_2CO_3$.is.ammonium.carbonate
14d00 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6f 6c 79 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 49 6f 6e ...\subsubsection{Polyatomic.Ion
14d20 73 7d 00 09 4e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 74 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 75 6c 65 73 20 66 6f s}..Nomenclature.is.the.rules.fo
14d40 72 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 73 20 64 65 76 65 6c 6f 65 70 64 r.naming.compounds,.as.develoepd
14d60 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 49 6e 74 65 72 6e 61 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 55 6e 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 50 .by.the.International.Union.of.P
14d80 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 41 70 70 6c 69 65 64 20 43 68 65 6d 69 73 74 72 79 20 28 49 55 50 41 43 ure.and.Applied.Chemistry.(IUPAC
14da0 29 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 61 6c )..For.ionic.compounds,.it.is.al
14dc0 77 61 79 73 20 5b 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d 65 74 61 6c 5d 20 2b 20 5b 61 6e 69 6f 6e 20 6e 6f 6e ways.[cation.metal].+.[anion.non
14de0 6d 65 74 61 6c 20 6d 6f 64 69 66 69 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 2d 69 64 65 5d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 metal.modified.with.-ide]..This.
14e00 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 65 20 70 65 72 66 6f 72 6d 65 64 20 69 6e 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 65 can.also.be.performed.in.reverse
14e20 3a 20 69 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 61 6b 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 69 6f :.if.one.takes.the.name.of.an.io
14e40 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2c 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 6e 65 6e 74 20 69 6f 6e 73 nic.compound,.the.component.ions
14e60 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 61 6e 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 61 74 .can.be.determined.and.from.that
14e80 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2c 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c .the.elements,.ratio,.and.formul
14ea0 61 20 69 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 6f 72 64 65 72 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e a.in.that.order...\subsubsection
14ec0 7b 4e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 {Nomenclature.of.Ionic.Compounds
14ee0 7d 00 09 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 61 72 65 20 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 2c 20 }..Ionic.compounds.are.neutral,.
14f00 61 6c 6c 6f 77 69 6e 67 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6c 67 65 62 72 61 69 63 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 61 allowing.for.algebraic.determina
14f20 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 2f 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 69 65 73 2e 20 46 tion.of.ion.ratios/quantities..F
14f40 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 69 66 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 41 20 68 61 73 20 61 6e 20 or.example,.if.element.A.has.an.
14f60 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 41 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 oxidation.state.of.A.and.element
14f80 20 42 20 68 61 73 20 61 6e 20 6f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 42 2c 20 .B.has.an.oxidation.state.of.B,.
14fa0 41 78 2b 42 79 3d 30 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 78 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 Ax+By=0.where.x.is.the.number.of
14fc0 20 41 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 42 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 42 .A.ions.and.B.is.the.number.of.B
14fe0 20 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 77 6f 72 6b 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 6e 74 6c 79 2e 00 .ions..This.works.consistently..
15000 61 64 00 00 44 03 00 00 90 03 00 00 00 10 00 00 0c 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 39 0e 00 00 1f 0e 00 00 ad..D...................9.......
15020 f1 0d 00 00 07 0b 00 00 df 0a 00 00 c9 08 00 00 c8 08 00 00 27 06 00 00 e8 05 00 00 b7 05 00 00 ....................'...........
15040 b6 03 00 00 90 03 00 00 8f 03 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
150a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
150c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
150e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
151a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
151c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
151e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15200 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15220 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15240 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15260 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15280 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
152a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
152c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
152e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15300 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15320 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15340 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15360 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
15380 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b .................\subsubsection{
153a0 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 4e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 49 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 61 Hydrocarbon.Notation}..Isomers.a
153c0 72 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 69 re.chemicals.which.are.similar.i
153e0 6e 20 6f 6e 65 20 6f 66 20 74 77 6f 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 28 69 66 20 74 68 65 79 n.one.of.two.properties.(if.they
15400 20 61 72 65 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 69 6e 20 62 6f 74 68 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 74 .are.similar.in.both,.they.are.t
15420 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 29 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 74 72 he.same.chemical)..These.are.str
15440 75 63 74 75 72 61 6c 20 69 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 28 73 61 6d 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 66 uctural.isomers.(same.chemical.f
15460 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 29 20 61 6e 64 20 67 65 6f 6d 65 74 72 69 63 20 69 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 28 74 ormula).and.geometric.isomers.(t
15480 68 65 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 6c 6f 6f 6b 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 2c 20 62 75 74 he.structure.looks.the.same,.but
154a0 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 29 2e 20 48 79 64 .the.numbers.are.different)..Hyd
154c0 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 78 63 rocarbons.are.chemicals.with.exc
154e0 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 2c 20 lusively.hydrogens.and.carbons,.
15500 61 6e 64 20 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 68 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 68 and.saturated.hydrocarbons.are.h
15520 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e ydrocarbons.with.only.single.bon
15540 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 73 20 61 6c 6b 61 ds..These.are.also.known.as.alka
15560 6e 65 73 2e 20 49 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 73 74 2c 20 75 6e 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 68 79 nes..In.contrast,.unsaturated.hy
15580 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 61 74 20 6c 65 61 73 74 20 6f 6e 65 20 drocarbons.contain.at.least.one.
155a0 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 6f 72 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c double.or.triple.bond..........\
155c0 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 48 79 64 72 6f 63 subsubsection{Isomers.and.Hydroc
155e0 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 arbons}.....\subsection{Properti
15600 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 55 73 65 73 20 6f 66 20 53 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 es.and.Uses.of.Saturated.Hydroca
15620 72 62 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 53 79 6e 74 68 65 74 69 63 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 20 75 73 65 73 20 rbons}..Synthetic.polymers.uses.
15640 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 3a 20 70 6f 6c 79 73 74 65 72 65 6e 65 20 66 6f 61 6d 20 28 6d 61 6b 65 73 include:.polysterene.foam.(makes
15660 20 74 61 6b 65 2d 6f 75 74 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 65 72 73 2c 20 70 61 63 6b 61 67 69 6e 67 20 .take-out.containers,.packaging.
15680 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 2c 20 65 67 67 20 63 61 72 74 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 73 75 materials,.egg.cartons,.and.insu
156a0 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 29 2c 20 6e 79 6c 6f 6e 20 28 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 72 6f 70 lation),.nylon.(used.to.make.rop
156c0 65 73 2c 20 6e 65 74 73 2c 20 62 61 63 6b 70 61 63 6b 73 2c 20 63 6f 6f 6b 69 6e 67 20 75 74 65 es,.nets,.backpacks,.cooking.ute
156e0 6e 73 69 6c 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 73 74 6f 63 6b 69 6e 67 73 29 2c 20 70 6f 6c 79 65 74 68 79 6c nsils,.and.stockings),.polyethyl
15700 65 6e 65 20 28 70 6c 61 73 74 69 63 20 62 61 67 73 2c 20 62 6f 74 74 6c 65 73 2c 20 74 6f 79 73 ene.(plastic.bags,.bottles,.toys
15720 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 76 75 6c 63 61 6e 69 7a 65 64 20 72 75 62 62 65 72 20 28 74 69 72 65 73 2c ),.and.vulcanized.rubber.(tires,
15740 20 73 68 6f 65 20 73 6f 6c 65 73 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 .shoe.soles)..The.reason.that.th
15760 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 73 74 20 74 6f ese.are.so.useful.in.contrast.to
15780 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 20 69 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 .natural.polymers.is.because.the
157a0 79 20 61 72 65 20 66 6c 65 78 69 62 6c 65 2c 20 68 61 72 64 2c 20 6c 69 67 68 74 77 65 69 67 68 y.are.flexible,.hard,.lightweigh
157c0 74 2c 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 2c 20 72 65 73 69 73 74 61 6e 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 t,.strong,.resistant,.and.often.
157e0 65 78 74 72 65 6d 65 6c 79 20 63 68 65 61 70 20 74 6f 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 extremely.cheap.to.produce..Howe
15800 76 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 6e 6f 74 20 62 69 6f 64 65 67 72 ver,.these.are.often.not.biodegr
15820 61 64 61 62 6c 65 2c 20 63 61 75 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 73 79 6e 74 68 65 74 69 63 20 70 6f adable,.causing.the.synthetic.po
15840 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 20 74 6f 20 62 75 69 6c 64 20 75 70 20 69 6e 20 6c 61 6e 64 66 69 6c 6c 73 20 lymers.to.build.up.in.landfills.
15860 61 73 20 72 65 63 79 63 6c 69 6e 67 20 69 73 20 65 78 70 65 6e 73 69 76 65 2e 20 41 6c 73 6f 2c as.recycling.is.expensive..Also,
15880 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 73 79 6e 74 .the.materials.used.to.make.synt
158a0 68 65 74 69 63 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 72 65 73 20 61 72 65 6e 27 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 61 76 61 hetic.polymres.aren't.always.ava
158c0 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 2e 00 00 09 54 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 77 6f 20 74 79 70 65 73 20 6f 66 ilable....There.are.two.types.of
158e0 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 3a 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 20 73 79 6e 74 68 65 74 69 63 .polymers:.natural.and.synthetic
15900 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 65 63 69 73 65 6c 79 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 79 20 73 6f ..These.are.precisely.as.they.so
15920 75 6e 64 2c 20 6d 61 64 65 20 69 6e 20 6e 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 61 6e 6d 61 64 65 20 und,.made.in.nature.and.manmade.
15940 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 2e 20 42 6f 74 68 20 61 72 65 20 69 6d 6d 65 6e 73 65 6c 79 respectively..Both.are.immensely
15960 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 69 6e 20 74 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c 6f 67 69 63 61 6c 20 61 70 70 6c 69 63 61 .useful.in.technological.applica
15980 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 2c 20 74 68 65 tions..For.natural.polymers,.the
159a0 73 65 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 67 6c 6f 76 65 73 20 72 75 62 62 65 72 20 62 61 6e 64 73 20 28 66 72 6f se.make.gloves.rubber.bands.(fro
159c0 6d 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 72 75 62 62 65 72 29 2c 20 67 6c 6f 76 65 73 2c 20 73 63 61 72 76 m.natural.rubber),.gloves,.scarv
159e0 65 73 2c 20 63 61 72 70 65 74 73 20 28 66 72 6f 6d 20 77 6f 6f 6c 29 2c 20 74 69 65 73 2c 20 61 es,.carpets.(from.wool),.ties,.a
15a00 6e 64 20 73 69 6c 6b 20 66 61 62 72 69 63 73 20 28 73 69 6c 6b 77 6f 72 6d 20 63 6f 63 6f 6f 6e nd.silk.fabrics.(silkworm.cocoon
15a20 73 29 2e 20 44 4e 41 20 28 63 61 72 72 69 65 73 20 67 65 6e 65 74 69 63 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 s)..DNA.(carries.genetic.informa
15a40 74 69 6f 6e 29 2c 20 73 74 61 72 63 68 20 28 66 6f 6f 64 20 61 6e 64 20 70 61 70 65 72 2d 6d 61 tion),.starch.(food.and.paper-ma
15a60 6b 69 6e 67 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 65 6c 6c 75 6c 6f 73 65 20 28 70 6c 61 6e 74 20 73 74 65 6d king),.and.cellulose.(plant.stem
15a80 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 75 73 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 72 65 61 64 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 63 6f s,.and.used.as.thread.such.as.co
15aa0 74 74 6f 6e 20 6a 65 61 6e 73 29 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 72 65 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 69 6e 63 72 65 tton.jeans).are.three.more.incre
15ac0 64 69 62 6c 79 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 2e 00 09 dibly.common.natural.polymers...
15ae0 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 20 43 6c 61 73 73 69 66 69 63 \subsubsection{Polymer.Classific
15b00 61 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 4d 6f 6e 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 62 61 73 69 63 20 75 ation}..Monomers.are.the.basic.u
15b20 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 2d 2d 2d 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 nits.of.polymers---simple.molecu
15b40 6c 65 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 65 74 68 79 6c 65 6e 65 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 63 6f 6d 62 les.like.ethylene.which.can.comb
15b60 69 6e 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 20 62 79 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 ine.with.eachother.by.covalent.b
15b80 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 2e 20 4d 6f 6e 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 73 68 61 72 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 73 onding..Monomers.share.electrons
15ba0 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 64 65 63 6f 6e 73 74 72 75 63 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 64 6f 75 62 6c .(such.as.deconstructing.a.doubl
15bc0 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 74 6f 20 e.bond.to.form.a.single.bond.to.
15be0 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 61 74 6f 6d 29 20 69 6e 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 another.atom).in.order.to.form.t
15c00 68 65 73 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 63 61 6e 20 65 61 63 hese.bonds..Because.they.can.eac
15c20 68 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 h.form.covalent.bonds.with.more.
15c40 74 68 61 6e 20 6f 6e 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6d 6f 6e 6f 6d 65 72 2c 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 than.one.other.monomer,.these.ca
15c60 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 61 73 20 72 65 70 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 73 75 62 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 n.occur.as.repeating.subunits.of
15c80 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 28 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 29 2e 20 54 68 65 .a.large.molecule.(polymer)..The
15ca0 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 20 6f 66 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 6d .process.of.forming.this.large.m
15cc0 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 28 61 6c 73 6f 20 6b 6e 6f 77 6e 20 61 73 20 61 20 6d 61 63 72 6f 6d 6f olecule.(also.known.as.a.macromo
15ce0 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 29 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 70 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 69 7a 61 74 69 6f 6e lecule).is.called.polymerization
15d00 2e 20 54 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 70 6f 6c 79 ..The.properties.of.a.given.poly
15d20 6d 65 72 20 61 72 65 2c 20 6e 6f 74 61 62 6c 79 2c 20 64 69 73 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 66 72 6f mer.are,.notably,.dissimilar.fro
15d40 6d 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 20 6d 6f 6e 6f 6d 65 72 73 2e 20 45 74 68 79 m.its.constituent.monomers..Ethy
15d60 6c 65 6e 65 2c 20 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 69 73 20 61 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 6c 65 73 lene,.for.example,.is.a.colorles
15d80 73 2c 20 66 6c 61 6d 6d 61 62 6c 65 20 67 61 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 73 77 65 65 74 20 74 61 s,.flammable.gas.with.a.sweet.ta
15da0 73 74 65 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 64 6f 72 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 73 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 70 ste.and.odor,.but.as.part.of.a.p
15dc0 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 2c 20 74 68 69 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 6c 61 73 74 69 63 20 6f olymer,.this.forms.the.plastic.o
15de0 66 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 6f 74 74 6c 65 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 f.water.bottles..........\subsub
15e00 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 46 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 50 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 7d 00 20 section{Formation.of.Polymers}..
15e20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 6f 6c 79 6d 65 72 73 7d 00 09 42 61 73 65 73 27 ...\subsection{Polymers}..Bases'
15e40 20 6e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 74 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 73 6c 69 67 68 74 6c 79 20 6c 65 73 73 20 66 .nomenclature.is.slightly.less.f
15e60 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 69 63 2e 20 4d 6f 73 74 20 63 6f 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 61 72 ormulaic..Most.covalent.bases.ar
15e80 65 20 61 6d 69 6e 65 73 2c 20 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 e.amines,.meaning.that.they.are.
15ea0 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 69 6e 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 74 6f 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 61 2c similar.in.structure.to.ammonia,
15ec0 20 62 75 74 20 69 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 61 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 2c 20 61 6e 20 52 .but.instead.of.a.hydrogen,.an.R
15ee0 2d 67 72 6f 75 70 20 28 61 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 6f 72 20 73 74 72 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 20 63 61 -group.(a.carbon.or.string.of.ca
15f00 72 62 6f 6e 73 29 20 69 73 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 rbons).is.present..The.number.of
15f20 20 52 2d 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 74 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 2c 20 73 75 63 68 .R-groups.changes.the.name,.such
15f40 20 61 73 20 70 72 69 6d 61 72 79 20 61 6d 69 6e 65 73 20 28 31 20 72 2d 67 72 6f 75 70 29 20 6f .as.primary.amines.(1.r-group).o
15f60 72 20 74 65 72 74 69 61 72 79 20 61 6d 69 6e 65 73 20 28 33 20 72 2d 67 72 6f 75 70 29 2e 20 41 r.tertiary.amines.(3.r-group)..A
15f80 20 68 79 64 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 69 6f 6e 20 63 61 6e 20 61 74 74 61 63 68 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 .hydrogen.ion.can.attach.to.the.
15fa0 4e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e 27 73 20 65 78 74 72 61 20 70 61 69 72 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f Nitrogen's.extra.pair.of.electro
15fc0 6e 73 2e 20 49 6f 6e 69 63 20 62 61 73 65 73 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 ns..Ionic.bases.follow.the.same.
15fe0 72 75 6c 65 73 20 61 73 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2e 00 rules.as.other.ionic.compounds..
16000 61 64 00 00 3a 00 00 00 aa 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 15 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 97 0c 00 00 53 0c 00 00 ad..:.......................S...
16020 03 0b 00 00 e7 0a 00 00 d1 0a 00 00 c0 0a 00 00 9c 0a 00 00 85 0a 00 00 37 0a 00 00 ef 09 00 00 ........................7.......
16040 e0 09 00 00 c3 09 00 00 d8 08 00 00 ba 08 00 00 c2 07 00 00 3c 05 00 00 43 03 00 00 02 03 00 00 ....................<...C.......
16060 d9 02 00 00 d9 00 00 00 aa 00 00 00 a9 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
16080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
160a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 69 73 20 49 73 ...........\subsubsection{Cis.Is
160c0 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 54 72 61 6e 73 20 49 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 7d 00 09 41 6c 6b 65 6e 65 omers.and.Trans.Isomers}..Alkene
160e0 73 20 61 72 65 20 68 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 74 20 6c 65 61 73 74 s.are.hydrocarbons.with.at.least
16100 20 6f 6e 65 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 .one.double.bond.between.carbon.
16120 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 68 61 73 20 atoms..The.chemical.formula.has.
16140 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 24 43 5f 6e 48 5f 7b 32 6e 7d 24 20 61 73 73 75 6d 69 6e 67 20 6f 6e the.form.$C_nH_{2n}$.assuming.on
16160 6c 79 20 6f 6e 65 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 2e 20 54 68 65 69 72 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 ly.one.double.bond..Their.naming
16180 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 73 20 61 6c 6b 61 6e .convention.is.the.same.as.alkan
161a0 65 73 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 66 66 69 78 20 22 2d 65 6e 65 2e es.except.with.the.suffix."-ene.
161c0 22 20 41 6c 6b 79 6e 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 74 20 6c 65 61 73 74 20 6f 6e 65 20 74 72 69 70 ".Alkynes.have.at.least.one.trip
161e0 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 20 54 68 le.bond.between.carbon.atoms..Th
16200 65 79 20 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 24 43 5f 6e 48 5f 7b 32 6e 2d 32 7d 24 2c 20 61 ey.use.the.form.$C_nH_{2n-2}$,.a
16220 6e 64 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 68 nd.their.naming.convention.is.th
16240 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 73 20 61 6c 6b 61 6e 65 73 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 22 2d e.same.as.alkanes.except.with."-
16260 79 6e 65 2e 22 20 42 6f 74 68 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 65 yne.".Both.have.a.number.prefixe
16280 64 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 64 69 63 61 74 65 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 2f 74 d.to.indicate.where.the.double/t
162a0 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 20 69 73 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 69 6e 20 69 73 20 6c 6f riple.bond.is.if.the.chain.is.lo
162c0 6e 67 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 63 79 63 6c 69 63 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ng..These.can.be.cyclic.........
162e0 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 6c 6b 65 6e 65 73 2c 20 41 6c 6b 79 6e 65 73 .\subsubsection{Alkenes,.Alkynes
16300 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 61 6e 64 }.....\subsection{Properties.and
16320 20 55 73 65 73 20 6f 66 20 55 6e 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e .Uses.of.Unsaturated.Hydrocarbon
16340 73 7d 00 09 43 79 63 6c 6f 61 6c 6b 61 6e 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 73 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 s}..Cycloalkanes.have.a.similar.
16360 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 2c 20 62 75 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 63 6f 75 70 6c 65 naming.system,.but.with.a.couple
16380 20 6f 66 20 65 78 63 65 70 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 49 6e 73 74 65 61 64 20 6f 66 20 73 74 61 72 74 .of.exceptions..Instead.of.start
163a0 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 69 6e 67 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 64 2c 20 74 68 65 ing.the.counting.at.the.end,.the
163c0 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 69 6e 67 20 73 74 61 72 74 73 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 6e 67 65 73 74 20 .counting.starts.at.the.longest.
163e0 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 20 28 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 6e 6f substituent.(because.there.is.no
16400 20 65 6e 64 29 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 65 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 .end).and.continues.in.the.direc
16420 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6c 6f 73 65 73 74 20 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 2e tion.of.the.closest.substituent.
16440 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 65 73 20 6f 74 68 65 72 77 69 73 65 20 61 .Numbering.continues.otherwise.a
16460 73 20 6e 6f 72 6d 61 6c 2c 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 63 79 63 6c 6f 61 6c s.normal,.using.standard.cycloal
16480 6b 61 6e 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 63 79 63 6c 6f 70 65 6e 74 61 6e 65 20 kane.names.such.as.cyclopentane.
164a0 6f 72 20 63 79 63 6c 6f 62 75 74 61 6e 65 2c 20 75 6e 6c 65 73 73 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 or.cyclobutane,.unless.there.is.
164c0 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6f 6e 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 73 only.one.substituent..In.the.cas
164e0 65 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 2c 20 6e 6f 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 69 e.of.one.substituent,.no.numberi
16500 6e 67 20 69 73 20 75 73 65 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 ng.is.used..The.name.of.the.subs
16520 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 20 69 73 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 79 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 65 64 2e 00 09 42 72 61 tituent.is.simply.prefixed...Bra
16540 6e 63 68 20 63 68 61 69 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 2d 73 74 65 70 20 6e 61 6d nch.chains.have.a.multi-step.nam
16560 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 3a 20 6f 6e 65 20 73 74 61 72 74 73 20 62 79 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 ing.system:.one.starts.by.naming
16580 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 6e 67 65 73 74 20 63 68 61 69 6e 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 .the.longest.chain.in.the.molecu
165a0 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 6e 6f 6e 61 6e 65 20 le.and.naming.that.(i.e..nonane.
165c0 6f 72 20 6d 65 74 68 61 6e 65 29 2e 20 54 68 65 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 or.methane)..Then,.the.substitue
165e0 6e 74 73 20 28 63 68 61 69 6e 73 20 63 6f 6d 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 nts.(chains.coming.off.of.the.ma
16600 69 6e 20 63 68 61 69 6e 29 20 61 72 65 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 69 65 64 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 61 62 in.chain).are.identified.and.lab
16620 65 6c 65 64 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 6d 65 74 68 79 6c 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 29 2e 4e 65 78 eled.(such.as.methyl.groups).Nex
16640 74 2c 20 61 6c 6c 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 6e 67 20 63 68 61 69 6e t,.all.carbons.on.the.long.chain
16660 20 61 72 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 65 64 20 73 65 71 75 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 6c 79 2d 2d 2d 73 74 61 .are.numbered.sequentially---sta
16680 72 74 69 6e 67 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 63 6c 6f 73 65 73 rting.at.the.end.with.the.closes
166a0 74 20 62 72 61 6e 63 68 2e 20 41 66 74 65 72 20 74 68 61 74 2c 20 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e t.branch..After.that,.substituen
166c0 74 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 61 72 65 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 61 6c 70 68 61 62 65 74 69 63 61 6c t.groups.are.listed.alphabetical
166e0 6c 79 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 6d 65 74 68 79 6c 20 62 65 66 6f 72 65 20 6e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 ly.(e.g..methyl.before.nitrogen.
16700 62 65 66 6f 72 65 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 64 20 69 6e 20 before.oxygen),.and.included.in.
16720 74 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 62 61 73 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 6c 6f 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f the.name.based.on.the.location.o
16740 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 69 74 75 65 6e 74 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 62 f.the.substituent.groups..This.b
16760 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 20 6e 61 6d 65 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 33 ecomes.a.molecule.name.such.as.3
16780 2c 36 2d 64 69 6d 65 74 68 79 6c 6e 6f 6e 61 6e 65 20 69 66 20 74 77 6f 20 6d 65 74 68 79 6c 73 ,6-dimethylnonane.if.two.methyls
167a0 20 61 72 65 20 61 74 74 61 63 68 65 64 20 74 6f 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 33 20 61 6e 64 20 36 .are.attached.to.carbons.3.and.6
167c0 2e 00 09 46 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 31 30 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 73 74 72 61 69 67 68 74 20 ...For.the.10.smallest.straight.
167e0 63 68 61 69 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6e 61 6d 69 6e 67 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 chains,.the.naming.system.is.a.s
16800 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 24 5b 70 72 65 66 69 78 5d 2d 61 6e 65 24 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 73 74 72 61 69 67 imple.$[prefix]-ane$..For.straig
16820 68 74 20 63 68 61 69 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 35 20 6f 72 20 67 72 65 61 74 65 72 20 63 61 72 62 ht.chains.with.5.or.greater.carb
16840 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 47 72 65 65 6b 20 6e 75 ons,.the.prefix.follows.Greek.nu
16860 6d 65 72 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 65 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 merical.prefixes,.but.the.first.
16880 34 20 61 72 65 20 6d 65 74 68 61 6e 65 2c 20 65 74 68 61 6e 65 2c 20 70 72 6f 70 61 6e 65 2c 20 4.are.methane,.ethane,.propane,.
168a0 61 6e 64 20 62 75 74 61 6e 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 6f 72 64 65 72 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 and.butane.in.that.order...\subs
168c0 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4e 6f 6d 65 6e 63 6c 61 74 75 72 65 7d 00 09 41 6c 6b 61 6e 65 73 ubsection{Nomenclature}..Alkanes
168e0 20 68 61 76 65 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 75 73 65 73 2c 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 69 6e 20 6d 65 63 .have.several.uses,.often.in.mec
16900 68 61 6e 69 63 61 6c 20 61 70 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 6c hanical.applications..These.incl
16920 75 64 65 20 67 61 73 6f 6c 69 6e 65 20 28 70 65 6e 74 61 6e 65 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 63 74 61 6e 65 ude.gasoline.(pentane.and.octane
16940 29 2c 20 6e 61 74 75 72 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 28 6d 65 74 68 61 6e 65 20 61 6e 64 20 65 74 68 61 ),.natural.gas.(methane.and.etha
16960 6e 65 29 2c 20 6c 75 62 72 69 63 61 74 69 6e 67 20 6f 69 6c 20 28 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 6c 65 6e ne),.lubricating.oil.(carbon.len
16980 67 74 68 73 20 6f 66 20 31 37 2d 33 35 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 73 70 68 gths.of.17-35.carbons),.and.asph
169a0 61 6c 74 20 28 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 6c 65 6e 67 74 68 73 20 24 3e 33 35 24 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e alt.(carbon.lengths.$>35$.carbon
169c0 73 29 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 6c 6b 61 6e 65 20 55 73 65 73 7d 00 s)..\subsubsection{Alkane.Uses}.
169e0 09 5c 65 6e 64 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 68 61 76 69 6e 67 .\end{itemize}......\item.having
16a00 20 61 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 20 77 69 74 68 20 69 6e 63 .a.higher.boiling.point.with.inc
16a20 72 65 61 73 65 64 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 6d 61 73 73 2e 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 reased.molecular.mass.......\ite
16a40 6d 20 49 6e 73 6f 6c 75 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 62 75 74 20 73 6f 6c 75 62 6c 65 m.Insoluble.in.water.but.soluble
16a60 20 69 6e 20 65 74 68 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6f 72 67 61 6e 69 63 20 73 6f 6c 76 .in.ether.and.other.organic.solv
16a80 65 6e 74 73 00 09 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 43 6f 6d 62 75 73 74 69 62 6c 65 00 20 20 20 20 ents......\item.Combustible.....
16aa0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 69 74 65 6d 20 46 61 69 72 6c 79 20 75 6e 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 00 ........\item.Fairly.unreactive.
16ac0 09 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 69 74 65 6d 69 7a 65 7d 00 09 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 67 65 6e 65 .\begin{itemize}..These.are.gene
16ae0 72 61 6c 6c 79 3a 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 rally:..\subsubsection{Propertie
16b00 73 7d 00 09 41 6c 6c 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 69 73 s}..All.compounds.listed.in.this
16b20 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 20 61 72 65 20 61 6c 6b 61 6e 65 73 2e 20 53 74 72 61 69 67 68 74 20 63 68 .lesson.are.alkanes..Straight.ch
16b40 61 69 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 73 74 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6c ains.are.the.simplest.type.of.al
16b60 6b 61 6e 65 2c 20 61 73 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 75 6c 61 72 20 73 74 72 61 69 67 68 74 20 6c 69 6e kane,.as.a.singular.straight.lin
16b80 65 20 6f 66 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 28 77 69 74 68 20 61 74 74 61 63 68 65 64 20 68 79 64 72 e.of.carbons.(with.attached.hydr
16ba0 6f 67 65 6e 73 29 2e 20 42 72 61 6e 63 68 65 64 20 63 68 61 69 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 6c 69 67 ogens)..Branched.chains.are.slig
16bc0 68 74 6c 79 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 2c 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 74 68 61 htly.more.complex,.with.more.tha
16be0 6e 20 32 20 22 65 6e 64 73 22 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 61 74 74 61 63 68 65 n.2."ends".(i.e..carbons.attache
16c00 64 20 74 6f 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6f 6e 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 29 2e 20 43 79 63 d.to.only.one.other.carbon)..Cyc
16c20 6c 6f 61 6c 6b 61 6e 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 6e 6f 20 22 65 6e 64 73 2c 22 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e loalkanes.have.no."ends,".formin
16c40 67 20 72 69 6e 67 73 20 6f 66 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 g.rings.of.carbon...\subsubsecti
16c60 6f 6e 7b 53 74 72 61 69 67 68 74 20 43 68 61 69 6e 73 2c 20 42 72 61 6e 63 68 65 64 20 43 68 61 on{Straight.Chains,.Branched.Cha
16c80 69 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 43 79 63 6c 6f 61 6c 6b 61 6e 65 73 7d 00 09 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 ins,.and.Cycloalkanes}..Hydrocar
16ca0 62 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 72 67 61 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 20 67 65 bons.and.organic.compounds.in.ge
16cc0 6e 65 72 61 6c 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 neral.are.often.represented.with
16ce0 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 64 20 4c 65 77 69 73 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 .standard.Lewis.structures,.but.
16d00 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 there.are.some.notational.abbrev
16d20 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 74 61 6b 65 6e 20 77 68 65 6e 20 iations.which.can.be.taken.when.
16d40 64 72 61 77 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 drawing.the.chemicals..The.first
16d60 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 69 73 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6d 65 74 .of.these.is.abbreviation.of.met
16d80 68 79 6c 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 28 24 43 48 5f 33 24 2c 20 24 43 48 5f 32 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 hyl.groups.($CH_3$,.$CH_2$.and.$
16da0 43 48 24 3b 20 6e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 24 43 48 5f 34 24 20 69 73 20 6e 65 76 65 72 20 70 CH$;.note.that.$CH_4$.is.never.p
16dc0 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 68 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 6d 6f 72 65 resent.in.hydrocarbons.with.more
16de0 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 24 43 48 5f 34 24 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 61 6c .than.a.single.$CH_4$.because.al
16e00 6c 20 6f 66 20 69 74 73 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 66 75 6c 6c 20 76 61 6c 65 6e 63 65 l.of.its.atoms.have.full.valence
16e20 20 73 68 65 6c 6c 73 2c 20 6c 65 61 76 69 6e 67 20 6e 6f 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 72 6f 6f 6d 20 66 6f .shells,.leaving.no.more.room.fo
16e40 72 20 62 6f 6e 64 69 6e 67 29 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 6d 65 74 68 79 6c 20 67 72 6f 75 70 73 20 r.bonding)..These.methyl.groups.
16e60 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 65 20 77 72 69 74 74 65 6e 20 69 6e 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 can.also.be.written.in.opposite.
16e80 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 48 5f 33 43 24 20 66 6f chemical.order.such.as.$H_3C$.fo
16ea0 72 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 6e 69 65 6e 63 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f r.convenience..The.other.notatio
16ec0 6e 61 6c 20 61 62 62 72 65 76 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 20 6d 65 74 68 79 6c 20 67 72 6f nal.abbreviation.is.a.methyl.gro
16ee0 75 70 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 77 72 69 74 74 65 6e 20 61 73 20 61 20 22 6a 6f 69 6e 74 22 20 28 6e up.being.written.as.a."joint".(n
16f00 6f 20 24 43 24 2c 20 6a 75 73 74 20 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 69 6e 67 20 74 77 6f 20 6c 69 6e 65 73 o.$C$,.just.connecting.two.lines
16f20 20 6f 72 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 65 6e 64 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6c 69 6e 65 29 2e 20 4e 6f .or.being.the.end.of.a.line)..No
16f40 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 69 73 20 6c 61 73 74 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 61 te.that.when.this.last.notationa
16f60 6c 20 74 72 69 63 6b 20 69 73 20 75 73 65 64 20 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 6a 75 6e 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 l.trick.is.used.in.conjunction.w
16f80 69 74 68 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 6f 72 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 ith.double.or.triple.bonds,.the.
16fa0 65 78 74 72 61 20 6c 69 6e 65 28 73 29 20 61 72 65 20 77 72 69 74 74 65 6e 20 61 64 6a 61 63 65 extra.line(s).are.written.adjace
16fc0 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 6e 6f 72 6d 61 6c 6c 79 20 nt.to.where.they.would.normally.
16fe0 63 6f 6e 6e 65 63 74 2c 20 6e 6f 74 20 74 6f 75 63 68 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 79 74 68 69 6e 67 2e 00 connect,.not.touching.anything..
17000 61 64 00 00 0c 01 00 00 7c 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 15 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 3a 0e 00 00 13 0e 00 00 ad......|...............:.......
17020 f5 0c 00 00 c2 0c 00 00 2e 0b 00 00 f6 0a 00 00 0f 0a 00 00 d5 09 00 00 67 08 00 00 33 08 00 00 ........................g...3...
17040 03 08 00 00 ca 07 00 00 3e 06 00 00 11 06 00 00 3e 05 00 00 02 05 00 00 48 03 00 00 47 03 00 00 ........>.......>.......H...G...
17060 d8 01 00 00 9e 01 00 00 7c 01 00 00 7b 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ........|...{...................
17080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
170a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
170c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
170e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
17100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
17120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
17140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
17160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 ................................
17180 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 ....\subsubsection{Equations}...
171a0 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 57 72 69 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 42 61 6c 61 6e 63 ..\subsection{Writing.and.Balanc
171c0 69 6e 67 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 45 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 ing.Chemical.Equations}..These.i
171e0 6e 64 69 63 61 74 6f 72 73 20 64 6f 20 6e 6f 74 20 70 72 6f 76 65 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 ndicators.do.not.prove.a.chemica
17200 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 73 20 61 20 68 61 72 64 20 61 6e 64 20 66 61 73 74 20 72 75 l.reaction.as.a.hard.and.fast.ru
17220 6c 65 2e 20 50 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 61 63 63 6f le..Physical.changes.can.be.acco
17240 6d 70 61 6e 69 65 64 20 62 79 20 67 61 73 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 6d 65 6e 74 6f 73 mpanied.by.gas.formation.(mentos
17260 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6b 65 29 2c 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 66 72 65 .and.coke),.solid.formation.(fre
17280 65 7a 69 6e 67 29 2c 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 28 62 6f 69 6c ezing),.temperature.change.(boil
172a0 69 6e 67 20 77 61 74 65 72 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 28 6d 69 ing.water),.and.color.change.(mi
172c0 78 69 6e 67 20 64 79 65 73 29 2e 20 47 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 xing.dyes)..Generally,.the.more.
172e0 69 6e 64 69 63 61 74 6f 72 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f indicators.of.a.chemical.reactio
17300 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6c 69 n.which.are.present,.the.more.li
17320 6b 65 6c 79 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 68 61 73 20 6f 63 63 kely.a.chemical.reaction.has.occ
17340 75 72 72 65 64 2e 00 00 09 41 73 20 6e 6f 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 6c 65 urred....As.noted.in.previous.le
17360 73 73 6f 6e 73 2c 20 77 68 65 6e 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 ssons,.when.a.chemical.reaction.
17380 6f 63 63 75 72 73 2c 20 73 65 76 65 72 61 6c 20 74 68 69 6e 67 73 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 70 70 65 occurs,.several.things.can.happe
173a0 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 n.which.are.common.between.chemi
173c0 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 67 61 73 cal.reactions..These.include.gas
173e0 20 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 28 70 72 65 63 69 70 69 74 61 74 65 29 20 .formation,.solid.(precipitate).
17400 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 20 63 6f 6c 6f 72 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 formation,.a.color.change,.and.a
17420 6c 77 61 79 73 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 lways.some.form.of.energy.change
17440 2e 20 54 68 65 20 65 6e 72 67 79 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 63 61 6e 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 74 68 ..The.enrgy.change.can.change.th
17460 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2c 20 61 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 e.temperature,.a.decrease.if.the
17480 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 65 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6e 20 .reaction.is.endothermic.and.an.
174a0 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 65 78 6f 74 increase.if.the.reaction.is.exot
174c0 68 65 72 6d 69 63 2e 20 4c 69 67 68 74 20 69 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 65 6d 69 74 74 65 64 20 61 73 hermic..Light.is.also.emitted.as
174e0 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 73 69 67 6e 61 6c 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 .another.signal.of.energy.change
17500 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6e 64 69 63 61 74 6f 72 73 2f 45 76 69 ...\subsubsection{Indicators/Evi
17520 64 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 43 dence.of.a.Chemical.Reaction}..C
17540 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 6f 76 65 72 hemical.reactions.can.occur.over
17560 20 61 20 73 68 6f 72 74 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 6f 66 20 74 69 6d 65 20 28 66 61 73 74 29 20 73 .a.short.period.of.time.(fast).s
17580 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 61 20 66 69 72 65 77 6f 72 6b 2c 20 6f 72 20 74 68 65 79 20 63 61 6e 20 74 uch.as.a.firework,.or.they.can.t
175a0 61 6b 65 20 61 20 6c 6f 6e 67 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 20 6f 66 20 74 69 6d 65 20 28 73 6c 6f 77 29 ake.a.long.period.of.time.(slow)
175c0 2c 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 6c 69 6d 65 73 74 6f 6e 65 20 64 65 63 61 79 69 6e 67 2e 20 54 68 ,.such.as.limestone.decaying..Th
175e0 65 20 73 70 65 65 64 20 61 74 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 74 68 69 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 69 73 20 e.speed.at.which.this.occurs.is.
17600 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 74 65 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e called.the.rate...\subsubsection
17620 7b 52 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 43 {Rate.of.a.Chemical.Reaction}..C
17640 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 63 63 6f 6d 70 61 6e 79 20 61 6c 6c 20 hemical.reactions.accompany.all.
17660 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 72 65 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 chemical.changes,.and.are.effect
17680 69 76 65 6c 79 20 65 71 75 69 76 61 6c 65 6e 74 2e 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 ively.equivalent..Chemical.react
176a0 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 79 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 72 65 20 61 20 72 65 61 72 72 ions,.by.definition,.are.a.rearr
176c0 61 6e 67 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e angement.of.the.atoms.in.reactan
176e0 74 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 20 69 6e 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e ts.which.result.in.a.new.substan
17700 63 65 20 28 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 29 2e 20 4f 78 69 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 73 20 69 6e 20 72 75 ce.(product)..Oxidation.as.in.ru
17720 73 74 2c 20 63 6f 6d 62 75 73 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 72 69 73 69 6e 67 20 62 72 65 61 64 st,.combustion,.and.rising.bread
17740 20 61 72 65 20 61 6c 6c 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 41 6e 20 .are.all.chemical.reactions..An.
17760 61 72 72 6f 77 20 28 24 5c 6c 6f 6e 67 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 24 29 20 69 73 20 6f 66 74 arrow.($\longrightarrow$).is.oft
17780 65 6e 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 en.used.to.represent.the.change.
177a0 66 72 6f 6d 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 74 6f 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 from.listed.reactants.to.listed.
177c0 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 63 products...\subsubsection{Chemic
177e0 61 6c 20 43 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e al.Changes.and.Chemical.Reaction
17800 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 76 69 64 65 6e 63 65 20 6f 66 20 43 s}.....\subsection{Evidence.of.C
17820 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 5c 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d hemical.Reactions}.\section{Chem
17840 69 63 61 6c 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 4c 69 6d 69 74 69 6e 67 20 52 65 61 63 ical.Reactions.and.Limiting.Reac
17860 74 61 6e 74 73 7d 00 09 55 6e 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 68 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 tants}..Unsaturated.hydrocarbons
17880 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 69 6d 65 73 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 66 6f 6f 64 20 73 .are.sometimes.present.in.food.s
178a0 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 69 6e 20 70 6f 6c 79 75 6e 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 6d 61 72 67 61 72 uch.as.in.polyunsaturated.margar
178c0 69 6e 65 20 6f 72 20 61 73 70 69 72 69 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 61 6e 61 6c 67 65 73 ine.or.aspirin.and.other.analges
178e0 69 63 20 6d 65 64 69 63 69 6e 65 73 20 28 74 68 65 79 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 ic.medicines.(they.contain.chemi
17900 63 61 6c 73 20 64 65 72 69 76 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 61 72 6f 6d 61 74 69 63 20 68 79 64 72 6f cals.derived.from.aromatic.hydro
17920 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 29 2e 20 52 75 62 62 65 72 20 69 73 20 6d 61 64 65 20 75 70 20 6f 66 20 61 carbons)..Rubber.is.made.up.of.a
17940 6c 6b 65 6e 65 20 6d 6f 6e 6f 6d 65 72 73 2c 20 70 6f 6c 79 73 74 65 72 65 6e 65 20 69 73 20 6d lkene.monomers,.polysterene.is.m
17960 61 64 65 20 6f 66 20 68 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 63 65 74 79 6c 65 ade.of.hydrocarbons,.and.acetyle
17980 6e 65 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 61 6c 6b 79 6e 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 61 73 20 66 75 65 6c 20 69 6e 20 ne.is.an.alkyne.used.as.fuel.in.
179a0 77 65 6c 64 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 72 63 68 65 73 2c 20 67 61 73 20 6c 61 6d 70 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 welding.torches,.gas.lamps,.and.
179c0 65 6c 65 63 74 72 69 63 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 6f 72 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 electric.generators...\subsubsec
179e0 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 70 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 55 6e 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 tion{Applications.of.Unsaturated
17a00 20 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 41 6c 6d 6f 73 74 20 61 6c 6c 20 61 72 65 20 63 .Hydrocarbons}..Almost.all.are.c
17a20 6f 6d 62 75 73 74 69 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 69 6e 73 6f 6c 75 62 6c 65 20 69 6e 20 77 61 74 65 ombustible.and.insoluble.in.wate
17a40 72 2e 20 41 6c 6b 79 6e 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 r..Alkynes.have.typically.higher
17a60 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 73 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 6c 6b 65 6e 65 73 20 6f 72 20 .boiling.points.than.alkenes.or.
17a80 61 72 6f 6d 61 74 69 63 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 6c 6c 20 6c 65 73 73 20 64 65 aromatics..These.are.all.less.de
17aa0 6e 73 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 77 61 74 65 72 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 61 6c 6b 65 6e 65 73 20 74 65 6e 64 nse.than.water,.and.alkenes.tend
17ac0 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 70 48 2d 6e 65 75 74 72 61 6c 20 77 68 69 6c 65 20 61 6c 6b 79 6e 65 73 20 .to.be.pH-neutral.while.alkynes.
17ae0 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 63 69 64 69 63 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 are.typically.acidic...\subsubse
17b00 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 72 6f 70 65 72 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 20 55 6e 73 61 74 75 72 61 74 65 64 20 ction{Properties.of.Unsaturated.
17b20 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 Hydrocarbons}..The.boiling.point
17b40 73 20 6f 66 20 61 6c 6b 65 6e 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 6c 6b 79 s.of.alkenes.are.lower.than.alky
17b60 6e 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 66 6f 72 20 62 6f 74 68 2c 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e nes,.and.for.both,.as.the.boilin
17b80 67 20 70 6f 69 6e 74 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 68 61 69 6e 20 6c 65 6e g.point.increases.with.chain.len
17ba0 67 74 68 2e 20 41 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 65 61 72 6c 69 65 72 20 6c 65 73 gth..As.mentioned.in.earlier.les
17bc0 73 6f 6e 73 2c 20 76 61 70 6f 72 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 73 sons,.vapor.pressure.is.the.pres
17be0 73 75 72 65 20 65 78 65 72 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 20 76 61 70 6f 72 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 sure.exerted.by.a.vapor.when.the
17c00 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 20 61 6e 64 20 76 61 70 6f 72 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 .liquid.and.vapor.are.in.equilib
17c20 72 69 75 6d 20 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 46 6f 72 rium.at.a.given.temperature..For
17c40 20 61 6c 6b 65 6e 65 73 2c 20 76 61 70 6f 72 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 .alkenes,.vapor.pressure.decreas
17c60 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 7a 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 es.with.the.size.of.the.molecule
17c80 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 75 62 73 74 .increasing,.and.like.most.subst
17ca0 61 6e 63 65 73 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 ances.increases.with.temperature
17cc0 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 42 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 50 6f 69 6e 74 73 ...\subsubsection{Boiling.Points
17ce0 20 61 6e 64 20 56 61 70 6f 72 20 50 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 7d 00 09 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 .and.Vapor.Pressure}..These.are.
17d00 74 68 65 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 2d 62 6f 6e 64 65 64 20 61 6e 61 6c 6f 67 20 6f 66 20 63 79 63 6c the.double-bonded.analog.of.cycl
17d20 6f 68 65 78 61 6e 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 72 6f 6d 61 74 69 63 20 68 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 ohexanes..The.aromatic.hydrocarb
17d40 6f 6e 73 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 36 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 69 72 ons.always.have.6.bonds.in.their
17d60 20 62 61 73 69 63 20 75 6e 69 74 20 28 62 65 6e 7a 65 6e 65 29 2c 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 6c 74 .basic.unit.(benzene),.which.alt
17d80 65 72 6e 61 74 65 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 73 69 6e 67 6c ernates.between.double.and.singl
17da0 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 66 6c 61 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 e.bonds..These.are.flat.molecule
17dc0 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 69 6e 74 6f 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 73 20 s,.and.can.form.into.structures.
17de0 77 69 74 68 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 62 65 6e 7a 65 6e 65 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 28 73 75 63 with.multiple.benzene.units.(suc
17e00 68 20 61 73 20 6e 61 70 68 74 68 61 6c 65 6e 65 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 h.as.naphthalene)...\subsubsecti
17e20 6f 6e 7b 41 72 6f 6d 61 74 69 63 20 48 79 64 72 6f 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 42 65 63 61 75 on{Aromatic.Hydrocarbons}..Becau
17e40 73 65 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 72 69 70 6c 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 20 75 73 65 20 70 se.double.and.triple.bonds.use.p
17e60 69 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 68 61 76 i.bonds,.the.molecules.don't.hav
17e80 65 20 66 72 65 65 64 6f 6d 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 76 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 62 6f 75 74 20 74 68 65 73 e.freedom.of.movement.about.thes
17ea0 65 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 e.bonds,.meaning.that.there.are.
17ec0 74 77 6f 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 two.possible.positions.in.which.
17ee0 74 68 65 20 61 64 6a 61 63 65 6e 74 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 72 the.adjacent.carbons.can.occur.r
17f00 65 6c 61 74 69 76 65 20 74 6f 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 65 72 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 elative.to.eachother..These.are.
17f20 63 69 73 20 69 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 6e 65 78 74 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 cis.isomers.(the.next.carbon.is.
17f40 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 6e 20 62 6f 74 68 20 73 69 in.the.same.direction.on.both.si
17f60 64 65 73 29 20 61 6e 64 20 74 72 61 6e 73 20 69 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 28 74 68 65 20 6e 65 78 74 des).and.trans.isomers.(the.next
17f80 20 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 69 .carbons.are.in.opposite.directi
17fa0 6f 6e 73 29 2e 20 54 72 61 6e 73 20 69 73 6f 6d 65 72 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 76 65 ons)..Trans.isomers.are.relative
17fc0 6c 79 20 75 6e 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 65 66 69 78 65 64 20 ly.uncommon..These.are.prefixed.
17fe0 74 6f 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 66 6f 72 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 66 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 00 to.compounds.for.identification.
18000 61 64 00 00 b9 00 00 00 15 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 10 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 73 0e 00 00 72 0e 00 00 ad......................s...r...
18020 68 0c 00 00 67 0c 00 00 fe 0a 00 00 c3 0a 00 00 9f 0a 00 00 d5 07 00 00 a3 07 00 00 50 06 00 00 h...g.......................P...
18040 2b 06 00 00 5c 03 00 00 38 03 00 00 04 03 00 00 5e 01 00 00 15 01 00 00 14 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 +...\...8.......^...............
18060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
18080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
180a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
180c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
180e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
18100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 ......................\subsubsec
18120 74 69 6f 6e 7b 44 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 69 61 74 69 6e 67 20 53 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 tion{Differentiating.Single.and.
18140 44 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 52 65 70 6c 61 63 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 54 Double.Replacement.Reactions}..T
18160 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 66 69 76 65 20 6d 61 69 6e 20 74 79 70 65 73 20 6f 66 20 63 68 65 6d here.are.five.main.types.of.chem
18180 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 3a 20 73 79 6e 74 68 65 73 69 73 20 28 32 2b 20 72 65 ical.reactions:.synthesis.(2+.re
181a0 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 63 6f 6d 62 69 6e 65 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 61 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 actants.combine.to.form.a.single
181c0 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 29 2c 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 61 20 73 69 6e 67 .product),.decomposition.(a.sing
181e0 6c 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 62 72 65 61 6b 73 20 64 6f 77 6e 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 le.compound.breaks.down.to.form.
18200 32 2b 20 6e 65 77 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 29 2c 20 63 6f 6d 62 75 73 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 2+.new.substances),.combustion.(
18220 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 6f 78 79 reaction.of.a.substance.with.oxy
18240 67 65 6e 2d 2d 2d 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 73 20 6f 78 79 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 29 2c 20 73 69 6e 67 6c gen---includes.oxydation),.singl
18260 65 20 72 65 70 6c 61 63 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 28 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 63 68 e.replacement.(reaction.in.which
18280 20 6f 6e 65 20 69 6f 6e 20 64 69 73 70 6c 61 63 65 73 20 61 6e 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 6f 20 66 6f .one.ion.displaces.another.to.fo
182a0 72 6d 20 61 20 6e 65 77 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 72 rm.a.new.compound),.and.double.r
182c0 65 70 6c 61 63 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 28 74 77 6f 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 eplacement.(two.ionic.compounds.
182e0 65 78 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 6e 65 77 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 exchange.ions.to.form.new.produc
18300 74 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 79 70 65 73 ts).........\subsubsection{Types
18320 20 6f 66 20 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 .of.Chemical.Reactions}.....\sub
18340 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 79 70 65 73 20 6f 66 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 49 6e 20 section{Types.of.Reactions}..In.
18360 6f 72 64 65 72 20 74 6f 20 61 63 63 75 72 61 74 65 6c 79 20 61 6e 61 6c 79 73 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 order.to.accurately.analyse.comp
18380 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c 20 69 74 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 66 75 6c 20 74 6f 20 6b 6e 6f 77 20 ounds,.it.can.be.useful.to.know.
183a0 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 73 73 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 the.proportions.of.masses.of.an.
183c0 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 75 74 61 74 69 6f 6e element..This.is.not.computation
183e0 61 6c 6c 79 20 64 69 66 66 69 63 75 6c 74 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 63 65 6e 74 20 63 6f ally.difficult.as.the.percent.co
18400 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 mposition.of.a.given.element.in.
18420 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 a.given.compound.is.the.mass.of.
18440 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 64 69 76 69 the.element.in.the.compound.divi
18460 64 65 64 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2e ded.by.the.mass.of.the.compound.
18480 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 66 6f 72 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 69 73 20 .Note.that.for.determining.this.
184a0 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6d 70 69 72 69 63 61 6c 20 72 61 ratio.molecular.and.empirical.ra
184c0 74 69 6f 73 20 61 72 65 20 65 71 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 77 65 6c 6c 2d 73 75 69 74 65 64 2e 20 54 68 tios.are.equally.well-suited..Th
184e0 65 73 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 62 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 ese.ratios.can.also.be.determine
18500 64 20 66 6f 72 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 20 74 68 61 d.for.more.complex.chemicals.tha
18520 6e 20 6a 75 73 74 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2e 20 49 6e 20 68 79 64 72 61 74 65 73 20 28 63 72 n.just.elements..In.hydrates.(cr
18540 79 73 74 61 6c 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 6e 74 65 67 72 61 74 65 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 69 6e 20 ystals.which.integrate.water.in.
18560 74 68 65 69 72 20 6c 61 74 74 69 63 65 29 2c 20 6f 6e 65 20 63 61 6e 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e their.lattice),.one.can.determin
18580 65 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 63 65 6e 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 77 61 74 e.the.percent.composition.of.wat
185a0 65 72 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 69 64 65 6e 74 69 63 61 6c 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 75 73 2e 20 4e 6f 74 er.by.an.identical.calculus..Not
185c0 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 69 6e 20 61 20 68 79 64 72 61 74 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6c 74 20 66 6f e.that.in.a.hydrate,.the.salt.fo
185e0 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 6e 68 79 rming.the.crystal.is.called.anhy
18600 64 72 6f 75 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 79 73 74 61 6c 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 68 drous.when.the.crystal.doesn't.h
18620 61 76 65 20 77 61 74 65 72 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 65 72 63 65 ave.water...\subsubsection{Perce
18640 6e 74 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 74 72 75 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 nt.Composition}..The.true.ratios
18660 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 6f 6c 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 65 61 72 6c 69 .and.mole.ratios.mentioned.earli
18680 65 72 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 74 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6d 70 69 72 69 er.generate.molecular.and.empiri
186a0 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 20 72 65 73 70 65 63 74 69 76 65 6c 79 20 28 65 2e 67 2e 20 cal.formulae.respectively.(e.g..
186c0 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 a.given.ratio.of.elements.such.a
186e0 73 20 24 43 3a 48 3d 31 3a 32 24 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 61 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 73 75 s.$C:H=1:2$.becomes.a.formula.su
18700 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 43 48 5f 32 24 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 6d 70 6c 69 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 ch.as.$CH_2$)..This.implies.that
18720 20 61 6c 6c 20 65 6d 70 69 72 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 68 65 .all.empirical.formulae.have.the
18740 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 73 74 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 .simplest.ratio.of.their.element
18760 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 20 63 61 6e 20 68 61 s,.but.molecular.formulae.can.ha
18780 76 65 20 61 6e 79 20 6d 75 6c 74 69 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 72 61 74 69 ve.any.multiple.of.a.simple.rati
187a0 6f 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6d 70 69 72 69 63 61 6c 20 61 6e 64 o...\subsubsection{Empirical.and
187c0 20 4d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 46 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 7d 00 09 41 20 6d 6f 6c 65 20 69 73 20 .Molecular.Formulae}..A.mole.is.
187e0 61 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 70 61 72 a.specific.number.of.a.given.par
18800 74 69 63 6c 65 20 28 69 6f 6e 2c 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 2c 20 65 74 63 2e ticle.(ion,.atom,.molecule,.etc.
18820 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 69 73 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 )..The.number.is.Avogadro's.numb
18840 65 72 20 61 6e 64 20 69 73 20 63 68 6f 73 65 6e 20 73 6f 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 er.and.is.chosen.so.that.the.mas
18860 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 20 6f 66 20 24 5e 7b 31 32 7d 43 24 20 69 73 20 31 32 67 2e 20 42 s.of.a.mol.of.$^{12}C$.is.12g..B
18880 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 72 65 6c 69 61 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 6d 61 73 ecause.this.isn't.reliant.on.mas
188a0 73 2c 20 6a 75 73 74 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 s,.just.the.amount.of.particles.
188c0 65 76 65 72 79 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 61 72 20 72 61 74 69 6f every.chemical.has.a.molar.ratio
188e0 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 .between.its.composite.elements.
18900 65 61 73 69 6c 79 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 61 62 6c 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 65 6d 70 easily.determinable.from.the.emp
18920 69 72 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 2e 20 24 43 4f 5f 32 24 2c 20 66 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d irical.formula..$CO_2$,.for.exam
18940 70 6c 65 2c 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 24 43 3a 4f 3d 31 3a ple,.has.a.mole.ratio.of.$C:O=1:
18960 32 24 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 2$..Note.that.this.isn't.always.
18980 6a 75 73 74 20 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 6c 69 73 just.the.numbers.of.elements.lis
189a0 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 2e 20 24 4e 5f 32 4f 5f 34 24 20 68 61 ted.in.the.formulae..$N_2O_4$.ha
189c0 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 24 4e 3a 4f 3d 32 3a 34 3d 31 3a 32 24 2c s.a.mole.ratio.of.$N:O=2:4=1:2$,
189e0 20 77 69 74 68 20 24 31 3a 32 24 20 70 72 65 66 65 72 72 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 69 6d .with.$1:2$.preferred.as.the.sim
18a00 70 6c 65 73 74 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 61 6e 64 20 24 32 3a 34 24 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 74 72 75 plest.ratio.and.$2:4$.as.the.tru
18a20 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 6e 65 65 64 20 e.ratio..These.ratios.also.need.
18a40 6e 6f 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 65 76 65 72 79 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 not.always.include.every.element
18a60 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 75 6d 20 6e 69 74 72 61 74 65 20 28 24 4e 48 5f 34 4e 4f 5f ..For.ammonium.nitrate.($NH_4NO_
18a80 33 24 29 2c 20 74 68 65 20 24 48 3a 4f 24 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 69 73 20 24 34 3a 33 24 2e 00 20 3$),.the.$H:O$.ratio.is.$4:3$...
18aa0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 65 20 52 61 74 69 6f .......\subsubsection{Mole.Ratio
18ac0 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 65 72 63 65 6e 74 20 43 6f 6d 70 6f s}.....\subsection{Percent.Compo
18ae0 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 4d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 46 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 7d 00 09 4f sition.and.Molecular.Formula}..O
18b00 66 74 65 6e 2c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 64 ften,.reaction.conditions.are.ad
18b20 64 65 64 20 61 62 6f 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 72 6f 77 20 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 72 6f 77 ded.above.the.arrow.or.the.arrow
18b40 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 62 69 64 69 72 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 73 79 6d 62 6f 6c .becomes.bidirectional.to.symbol
18b60 69 7a 65 20 61 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 20 72 ize.a.reversible.reaction..The.r
18b80 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 73 74 6c 79 20 73 65 eaction.conditions.are.mostly.se
18ba0 6c 66 20 65 78 70 6c 61 6e 61 74 6f 72 79 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 34 20 63 lf.explanatory.and.there.are.4.c
18bc0 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 73 79 6d 62 6f 6c 73 3a 20 61 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 24 20 66 6f 72 20 61 20 ommon.symbols:.a.$\Delta$.for.a.
18be0 68 65 61 74 65 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 24 32 35 5e 5c 63 69 72 63 24 20 66 6f 72 20 heated.reaction,.$25^\circ$.for.
18c00 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 74 20 32 35 24 5e 5c 63 69 72 63 24 2c 20 24 32 61 74 6d 24 a.reaction.at.25$^\circ$,.$2atm$
18c20 20 66 6f 72 20 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 74 20 32 20 61 74 6d 6f 73 70 68 65 72 65 73 .for.a.reaction.at.2.atmospheres
18c40 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 24 50 74 24 20 66 6f 72 20 70 6c 61 74 69 6e 75 6d 20 61 73 20 61 20 63 61 74 ,.and.$Pt$.for.platinum.as.a.cat
18c60 61 6c 79 73 74 2e 00 00 09 54 68 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f alyst....The.formulae.are.the.mo
18c80 73 74 20 63 6f 6d 6d 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 61 63 63 65 70 74 65 64 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6c 65 74 74 st.common.and.accepted..The.lett
18ca0 65 72 73 20 6e 65 78 74 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 27 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 ers.next.to.the.chemicals'.formu
18cc0 6c 61 65 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 28 73 20 69 73 20 73 6f lae.represent.the.state.(s.is.so
18ce0 6c 69 64 2c 20 6c 20 69 73 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 2c 20 67 20 69 73 20 67 61 73 2c 20 61 71 20 69 lid,.l.is.liquid,.g.is.gas,.aq.i
18d00 73 20 61 71 75 65 6f 75 73 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 62 65 66 6f 72 65 20 74 s.aqueous)..The.numbers.before.t
18d20 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 22 63 6f 75 6e 74 73 22 20 he.chemicals.represent."counts".
18d40 28 72 61 74 69 6f 73 29 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 2f 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 (ratios).of.moles/molecules.and.
18d60 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 69 6e 67 20 62 79 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 61 6c 67 65 62 72 61 allow.balancing.by.using.algebra
18d80 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 61 74 69 .and.the.principle.of.conservati
18da0 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 6d 61 74 74 65 72 20 28 69 66 20 24 4f 5f 32 24 20 69 73 20 61 74 20 6c 65 66 on.of.matter.(if.$O_2$.is.at.lef
18dc0 74 20 61 6e 64 20 24 48 5f 32 4f 24 20 69 73 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 2c 20 77 69 t.and.$H_2O$.is.at.the.right,.wi
18de0 74 68 20 6e 6f 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 th.no.other.oxygens,.there.will.
18e00 62 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 73 20 6f 6e be.the.same.number.of.oxygens.on
18e20 20 65 61 63 68 20 73 69 64 65 20 28 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 29 .each.side.(double.at.the.right)
18e40 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 73 74 20 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 )..The.smallest.possible.numbers
18e60 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 65 66 65 72 72 61 62 6c 65 2e 00 00 09 45 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 .are.preferrable....Equations.re
18e80 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f present.a.given.chemical.reactio
18ea0 6e 20 28 63 68 61 6e 67 69 6e 67 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 6f 6e 20 n.(changing.listed.reactants.on.
18ec0 74 68 65 20 6c 65 66 74 20 74 6f 20 6c 69 73 74 65 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 the.left.to.listed.products.on.t
18ee0 68 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 2c 20 73 65 70 61 72 61 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 70 6c 75 73 65 73 20 69 6e he.right,.separated.by.pluses.in
18f00 20 62 6f 74 68 20 63 61 73 65 73 29 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 65 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 63 61 .both.cases)..These.equations.ca
18f20 6e 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 65 61 63 68 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 n.represent.each.substance.with.
18f40 77 6f 72 64 73 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 6f 72 20 73 6f 64 69 75 6d 20 62 words.(such.as.water.or.sodium.b
18f60 69 63 61 72 62 6f 6e 61 74 65 29 20 6f 72 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 65 icarbonate).or.chemical.formulae
18f80 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 48 5f 32 4f 20 28 6c 29 24 20 6f 72 20 24 31 32 4e 61 48 43 4f .(such.as.$H_2O.(l)$.or.$12NaHCO
18fa0 5f 33 20 28 67 29 24 29 2e 20 49 6e 20 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 20 63 61 73 65 73 2c 20 61 20 22 6d _3.(g)$)..In.special.cases,.a."m
18fc0 6f 64 65 6c 22 20 28 70 69 63 74 6f 67 72 61 70 68 69 63 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 61 74 69 odel".(pictographic.representati
18fe0 6f 6e 29 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 6c 61 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 64 2e 00 on).of.the.formula.can.be.used..
19000 61 64 00 00 33 01 00 00 8f 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 10 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 cd 0e 00 00 ac 0e 00 00 ad..3...........................
19020 74 0c 00 00 3f 0c 00 00 02 0c 00 00 5b 08 00 00 26 08 00 00 b0 05 00 00 87 05 00 00 69 05 00 00 t...?.......[...&...........i...
19040 35 05 00 00 c6 03 00 00 8b 03 00 00 ef 01 00 00 c0 01 00 00 8f 01 00 00 8e 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 5...............................
19060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
190a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
190c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
190e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
19180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 .......................\subsubse
191a0 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 61 6e 64 20 52 61 74 69 6f 73 7d 00 ction{Stoichiometry.and.Ratios}.
191c0 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6e 74 72 6f 64 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 6f 20 ....\subsection{Introduction.to.
191e0 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 41 76 6f Stoichiometry}..The.mole.and.Avo
19200 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 20 61 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 61 74 gadro's.number.relate.average.at
19220 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 6f 6c 61 72 20 6d 61 73 73 2e 20 41 76 65 72 61 67 omic.mass.and.molar.mass..Averag
19240 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 61 73 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 74 61 74 69 73 74 69 63 20 64 e.atomic.mass.is.the.statistic.d
19260 69 73 70 6c 61 79 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 65 72 69 6f 64 69 63 20 74 61 62 6c 65 20 62 isplayed.on.the.periodic.table.b
19280 65 6c 6f 77 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 69 6e 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b elow.a.given.element,.in.$\frac{
192a0 61 6d 75 7d 7b 61 74 6f 6d 7d 24 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 65 78 74 65 6e 73 69 62 6c 65 20 amu}{atom}$..This.is.extensible.
192c0 74 6f 20 61 6e 79 20 61 72 62 69 74 72 61 72 79 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 2c 20 73 74 69 6c 6c to.any.arbitrary.molecule,.still
192e0 20 69 6e 20 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 61 6d 75 7d 7b 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 7d .in..units.$\frac{amu}{particle}
19300 24 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 66 6f 72 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e $..Note.that.for.a.given.substan
19320 63 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 61 72 20 6d 61 73 73 20 28 75 6e 69 74 73 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 ce,.the.molar.mass.(units.$\frac
19340 7b 67 7d 7b 6d 6f 6c 7d 24 29 20 69 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 61 76 65 72 61 {g}{mol}$).is.equal.to.the.avera
19360 67 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 62 79 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f ge.particle.mass.by.definition.o
19380 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f f.the.mol..........\subsubsectio
193a0 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 4d 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 41 76 65 72 61 67 65 20 41 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 n{Molar.Mass.and.Average.Atomic.
193c0 4d 61 73 73 7d 00 09 4d 6f 6c 65 73 20 28 6d 6f 6c 29 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 53 49 20 75 6e Mass}..Moles.(mol).are.the.SI.un
193e0 69 74 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 it.for.the.amount.of.a.substance
19400 2c 20 6f 6e 65 20 6d 6f 6c 20 62 65 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 ,.one.mol.being.the.same.number.
19420 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 of.particles.of.a.given.substanc
19440 65 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 31 32 67 20 6f 66 20 43 e.as.there.are.atoms.in.12g.of.C
19460 2d 31 32 2c 20 6f 72 20 24 36 2e 30 32 2a 31 30 5e 7b 32 33 7d 24 2e 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f -12,.or.$6.02*10^{23}$..Avogadro
19480 27 73 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 69 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 's.number.is.that.number.of.part
194a0 69 63 6c 65 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 69 74 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c icles.in.a.mol,.and.it.is.calcul
194c0 61 62 6c 65 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 62 61 73 69 63 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 61 72 62 6f able.from.basic.units.of.a.carbo
194e0 6e 2d 31 32 20 61 74 6f 6d 2c 20 6e 61 6d 65 6c 79 20 69 74 73 20 61 74 6f 6d 69 63 20 6d 61 73 n-12.atom,.namely.its.atomic.mas
19500 73 20 6f 66 20 24 31 32 61 6d 75 24 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 66 61 63 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 24 s.of.$12amu$.and.the.fact.that.$
19520 31 61 6d 75 3d 31 2e 36 36 2a 31 30 5e 7b 2d 32 34 7d 67 24 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 1amu=1.66*10^{-24}g$.........\su
19540 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 bsubsection{Moles.and.Avogadro's
19560 20 4e 75 6d 62 65 72 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 4d .Number}.....\subsection{Molar.M
19580 61 73 73 65 73 7d 00 5c 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 61 6e asses}.\section{Stoichiometry.an
195a0 64 20 74 68 65 20 47 61 73 20 4c 61 77 73 7d 00 09 54 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 79 69 65 d.the.Gas.Laws}..Theoretical.yie
195c0 6c 64 20 69 73 20 60 60 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 6d 61 78 69 6d 75 6d 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 ld.is.``the.ideal.maximum.amount
195e0 20 6f 66 20 61 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 .of.a.product.that.can.be.produc
19600 65 64 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 20 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 65 64 ed.during.a.reaction,.calculated
19620 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 73 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 69 63 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 68 69 .from.stoichiometric.relationshi
19640 70 73 2e 27 27 20 41 6c 6c 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 73 20 61 62 6f 76 65 20 61 73 73 75 6d 65 64 ps.''.All.examples.above.assumed
19660 20 74 68 61 74 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 72 20 70 65 72 66 65 63 74 6c 79 .that.reactions.occurr.perfectly
19680 2c 20 63 6f 6e 73 75 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 6c 6c 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 ,.consuming.all.of.the.reactants
196a0 20 61 6e 64 20 63 72 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 72 72 65 63 74 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 .and.creating.the.correct.amount
196c0 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 20 61 6e 64 20 6e 6f 74 68 69 6e 67 20 65 6c 73 65 2e 20 54 68 .of.product.and.nothing.else..Th
196e0 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 77 61 73 20 e.amount.of.product.created.was.
19700 74 68 65 20 74 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 79 69 65 6c 64 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 the.theoretical.yield..However,.
19720 72 65 61 6c 20 6c 69 66 65 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 75 73 75 61 6c 6c 79 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 real.life.doesn't.usually.have.t
19740 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 79 69 65 6c 64 20 28 61 63 74 75 61 6c 20 79 69 65 6c 64 29 20 61 73 20 he.same.yield.(actual.yield).as.
19760 70 72 65 64 69 63 74 65 64 2e 20 41 63 74 75 61 6c 20 79 69 65 6c 64 20 69 73 20 61 6c 6d 6f 73 predicted..Actual.yield.is.almos
19780 74 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 6c 65 73 73 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 79 t.always.less.than.theoretical.y
197a0 69 65 6c 64 20 64 75 65 20 74 6f 20 73 75 62 6f 70 74 69 6d 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 20 ield.due.to.suboptimal.reactant.
197c0 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 72 61 6e 64 6f 6d 20 66 61 63 74 6f 72 73 2e 20 50 conditions.and.random.factors..P
197e0 65 72 63 65 6e 74 20 79 69 65 6c 64 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 ercent.yield.is.the.ratio.betwee
19800 6e 20 61 63 74 75 61 6c 20 79 69 65 6c 64 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 79 n.actual.yield.and.theoretical.y
19820 69 65 6c 64 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 ield...\subsubsection{Theoretica
19840 6c 20 59 69 65 6c 64 20 61 6e 64 20 50 65 72 63 65 6e 74 20 59 69 65 6c 64 7d 00 09 53 74 6f 69 l.Yield.and.Percent.Yield}..Stoi
19860 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 68 69 70 20 62 65 chiometry.is.the.relationship.be
19880 74 77 65 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 76 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 69 65 73 20 6f 66 tween.the.relative.quantities.of
198a0 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 74 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 70 61 72 74 20 69 6e 20 61 20 72 65 61 .substances.taking.part.in.a.rea
198c0 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 72 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2c 20 74 79 70 ction.or.forming.a.compound,.typ
198e0 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 77 68 6f 6c 65 20 69 6e 74 65 67 65 72 73 ically.a.ratio.of.whole.integers
19900 2e 20 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 69 73 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 75 73 65 ..Stoichiometry.is.typically.use
19920 64 20 69 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 73 74 72 79 20 74 6f 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 20 74 68 65 20 d.in.chemistry.to.determine.the.
19940 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 69 6e 20 77 68 69 ratios.between.substances.in.whi
19960 63 68 20 74 68 65 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 24 48 5f 32 ch.they.react..For.example,.$H_2
19980 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 4e 5f 32 24 20 72 65 61 63 74 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 24 4e 48 5f 33 24 $.and.$N_2$.react.to.form.$NH_3$
199a0 20 69 6e 20 61 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 6f 66 20 24 48 3a 4e 3d 33 3a 31 24 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 .in.a.ratio.of.$H:N=3:1$..Howeve
199c0 72 2c 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 35 6d 6f 6c 20 6f 66 20 24 48 5f 32 24 20 61 6e r,.if.there.are.5mol.of.$H_2$.an
199e0 64 20 31 6d 6f 6c 20 6f 66 20 24 4e 5f 32 24 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 69 73 20 6c d.1mol.of.$N_2$,.then.there.is.l
19a00 65 66 74 20 32 6d 6f 6c 20 6f 66 20 24 48 5f 32 24 2c 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 78 eft.2mol.of.$H_2$,.called.the.ex
19a20 63 65 73 73 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6e 69 74 72 cess.reactant..Because.more.nitr
19a40 6f 67 65 6e 20 77 6f 75 6c 64 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 65 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 ogen.would.allow.continued.react
19a60 69 6f 6e 2c 20 6e 69 74 72 6f 67 65 6e 20 69 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 6c 69 6d 69 ion,.nitrogen.is.called.the.limi
19a80 74 69 6e 67 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 2e 20 49 6e 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 2c 20 74 68 65 20 6c ting.reactant..In.general,.the.l
19aa0 69 6d 69 74 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 20 65 78 63 65 73 73 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 imiting.and.excess.reactants.in.
19ac0 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 74 68 20 75 6e 65 76 65 6e 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f a.reaction.with.uneven.proportio
19ae0 6e 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 20 73 69 6d 69 ns.can.be.determined.with.a.simi
19b00 6c 61 72 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 75 73 2e 20 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 61 6c 73 6f lar.calculus..Stoichiometry.also
19b20 20 65 78 74 65 6e 64 73 20 74 6f 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 69 73 6f 6e 73 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 .extends.to.comparisons.between.
19b40 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2e 20 49 66 20 24 32 4f 5f 32 reactants.and.products..If.$2O_2
19b60 20 2b 20 48 5f 32 4f 20 5c 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 20 48 5f 32 4f 5f 35 24 2c 20 31 30 20 .+.H_2O.\rightarrow.H_2O_5$,.10.
19b80 66 75 6c 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 65 64 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 6f 78 79 67 65 6e 20 66 6f fully.reacted.moles.of.oxygen.fo
19ba0 72 6d 20 35 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 6f 6e 20 74 rm.5.moles.of.the.substance.on.t
19bc0 68 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 20 28 6e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 he.right.(note.that.the.substanc
19be0 65 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 6e 6f 20 73 65 6e 73 65 20 61 6e 64 20 69 73 6e 27 74 20 72 65 61 6c 29 e.makes.no.sense.and.isn't.real)
19c00 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4c 69 6d 69 74 69 6e ..........\subsubsection{Limitin
19c20 67 20 52 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 7d 00 20 g.Reactants.and.Stoichiometry}..
19c40 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4c 69 6d 69 74 69 6e 67 20 52 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 ...\subsection{Limiting.Reactant
19c60 20 61 6e 64 20 50 65 72 63 65 6e 74 20 59 69 65 6c 64 7d 00 09 54 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 69 74 .and.Percent.Yield}..The.activit
19c80 79 20 73 65 72 69 65 73 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 73 20 68 6f 77 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 y.series.describes.how.reactive.
19ca0 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 65 61 63 68 6f 74 68 elements.are.compared.to.eachoth
19cc0 65 72 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 6c 69 74 68 69 75 6d 20 69 73 20 6d 75 63 68 er..For.example,.lithium.is.much
19ce0 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 67 6f 6c 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 .more.reactive.than.gold..This.c
19d00 61 6e 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 20 75 73 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 70 72 65 64 69 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 an.allow.us.to.make.predictions.
19d20 61 62 6f 75 74 20 69 66 20 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 74 61 6b 65 20 70 6c about.if.a.reaction.will.take.pl
19d40 61 63 65 20 6f 72 20 6e 6f 74 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 77 65 20 6b 6e 6f 77 ace.or.not..For.example,.we.know
19d60 20 74 68 61 74 20 24 41 67 4e 4f 5f 33 2b 43 75 24 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 6c 69 6b 65 6c .that.$AgNO_3+Cu$.are.more.likel
19d80 79 20 74 6f 20 72 65 61 63 74 20 74 68 61 6e 20 24 43 75 28 4e 4f 5f 33 29 5f 32 2b 41 67 24 20 y.to.react.than.$Cu(NO_3)_2+Ag$.
19da0 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 63 6f 70 70 65 72 20 69 6e 20 69 74 73 20 70 75 72 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 because.copper.in.its.pure.form.
19dc0 69 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 73 69 6c 76 65 72 20 69 73 20 is.more.reactive.than.silver.is.
19de0 69 6e 20 69 74 73 20 70 75 72 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 67 65 6e 65 72 61 6c 69 73 in.its.pure.form..This.generalis
19e00 65 73 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 68 61 6c 6f 67 65 6e 73 27 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 65 74 61 es..Note.that.halogens'.and.meta
19e20 6c 73 27 20 61 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 73 65 72 69 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e ls'.activity.series.are.differen
19e40 74 2e 20 4d 65 74 61 6c 73 27 20 61 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 73 65 72 69 65 73 20 69 73 20 6c 6f t..Metals'.activity.series.is.lo
19e60 6e 67 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 20 68 61 6c 6f 67 65 6e 73 27 20 61 63 74 69 76 69 74 79 20 73 ng,.but.the.halogens'.activity.s
19e80 65 72 69 65 73 20 69 73 20 73 68 6f 72 74 20 28 24 46 5f 32 20 3e 20 43 6c 5f 32 20 3e 20 42 72 eries.is.short.($F_2.>.Cl_2.>.Br
19ea0 5f 32 20 3e 20 49 5f 32 24 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 63 74 69 _2.>.I_2$)...\subsubsection{Acti
19ec0 76 69 74 79 20 53 65 72 69 65 73 7d 00 09 49 6e 20 73 69 6e 67 6c 65 20 72 65 70 6c 61 63 65 6d vity.Series}..In.single.replacem
19ee0 65 6e 74 2c 20 62 6f 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 ent,.both.the.reactants.and.prod
19f00 75 63 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 6f 6e 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 61 6e 64 20 6f 6e 65 20 63 6f ucts.have.one.element.and.one.co
19f20 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2c 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 mpound,.where.the.reactant.eleme
19f40 6e 74 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 73 20 70 61 72 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 20 63 nt.becomes.part.of.the.product.c
19f60 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 2e 20 49 6e 20 64 6f 75 62 6c 65 20 72 65 70 6c 61 63 65 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 ompound..In.double.replacement,.
19f80 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6f 6e 69 63 reactants.and.products.are.ionic
19fa0 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 .compounds.and.the.same.ions.are
19fc0 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 2d 2d 2d 6a 75 73 74 20 72 65 6f 72 64 65 72 65 64 2d 2d 2d 62 65 74 77 .present---just.reordered---betw
19fe0 65 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2e 00 een.the.reactants.and.products..
1a000 61 64 00 00 15 00 00 00 99 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 1a 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 3e 0d 00 00 11 0d 00 00 ad......................>.......
1a020 d7 0c 00 00 58 0b 00 00 2c 0b 00 00 29 0a 00 00 0f 0a 00 00 eb 09 00 00 dc 07 00 00 c0 07 00 00 ....X...,...)...................
1a040 a8 07 00 00 9e 07 00 00 82 07 00 00 3d 07 00 00 f5 06 00 00 a0 06 00 00 91 06 00 00 6f 06 00 00 ............=...............o...
1a060 4b 04 00 00 28 04 00 00 01 04 00 00 01 03 00 00 d0 02 00 00 07 01 00 00 e4 00 00 00 99 00 00 00 K...(...........................
1a080 98 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 ................................
1a0a0 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6d 70 6c 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 66 20 .\subsubsection{Implications.of.
1a0c0 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 56 6f 6c 75 6d 65 3a 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 Molar.Volume:.Avogadro's.Princip
1a0e0 6c 65 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 47 61 73 20 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f le}.....\subsection{Gas.Stoichio
1a100 6d 65 74 72 79 7d 00 09 46 72 6f 6d 20 42 6f 79 6c 65 27 73 20 4c 61 77 20 28 24 56 5c 70 72 6f metry}..From.Boyle's.Law.($V\pro
1a120 70 74 6f 20 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 31 7d 7b 50 7d 24 29 2c 20 43 68 61 72 6c 65 27 73 20 4c 61 77 20 pto.\frac{1}{P}$),.Charle's.Law.
1a140 28 24 56 5c 70 72 6f 70 74 6f 20 54 24 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 20 4c ($V\propto.T$),.and.Avogadro's.L
1a160 61 77 20 28 24 56 5c 70 72 6f 70 74 6f 20 6e 24 29 2c 20 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 aw.($V\propto.n$),.the.ideal.gas
1a180 20 6c 61 77 20 6f 66 20 24 56 5c 70 72 6f 70 74 6f 20 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 6e 54 7d 7b 50 7d 24 20 .law.of.$V\propto.\frac{nT}{P}$.
1a1a0 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 64 65 72 69 76 65 64 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 65 71 75 69 76 61 6c 65 can.be.derived..This.is.equivale
1a1c0 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 24 56 3d 52 28 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 6e 54 7d 7b 50 7d 29 24 20 6f 72 20 24 50 56 nt.to.$V=R(\frac{nT}{P})$.or.$PV
1a1e0 3d 6e 52 54 24 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 24 52 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 =nRT$.where.$R$.is.the.gas.const
1a200 61 6e 74 2e 20 42 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 6c 61 77 20 69 ant..Because.the.ideal.gas.law.i
1a220 73 20 69 6e 64 65 70 65 6e 64 65 6e 74 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 27 73 20 69 64 65 s.independent.from.the.gas's.ide
1a240 6e 74 69 74 79 2c 20 24 52 24 20 68 61 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 6f 6e 65 20 76 61 6c 75 65 2e 20 48 ntity,.$R$.has.only.one.value..H
1a260 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 63 61 6e 20 64 69 76 65 72 67 65 20 owever,.ideal.gases.can.diverge.
1a280 66 72 6f 6d 20 72 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 73 69 67 6e 69 66 69 63 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 69 6e from.real.gases.significantly.in
1a2a0 20 68 69 67 68 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 6f 72 20 6c 6f 77 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 .high.pressure.or.low.temperatur
1a2c0 65 20 65 6e 76 69 72 6f 6e 6d 65 6e 74 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b e.environments...\subsubsection{
1a2e0 44 65 72 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 49 64 65 61 6c 20 47 61 73 20 4c 61 77 7d Derivation.of.the.Ideal.Gas.Law}
1a300 00 09 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 20 4c 61 77 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 22 74 68 ..Avogadro's.Law.states.that."th
1a320 65 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 61 73 20 69 73 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 61 e.volume.of.a.gas.is.proportiona
1a340 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 70 l.to.the.moles.of.the.gas.when.p
1a360 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 6b 65 70 74 ressure.and.temperature.are.kept
1a380 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 2e 22 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 24 4e 24 20 74 65 72 6d .constant.".This.is.the.$N$.term
1a3a0 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 6c 61 77 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 .in.the.ideal.gas.law.mentioned.
1a3c0 69 6e 20 6c 61 73 74 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 in.last.lesson..Note.that.this.i
1a3e0 73 20 75 6e 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 67 61 73 27 73 20 6d 61 6b 65 75 70 2e s.unrelated.to.the.gas's.makeup.
1a400 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f .........\subsubsection{Avogadro
1a420 27 73 20 4c 61 77 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 49 64 65 61 's.Law}.....\subsection{The.Idea
1a440 6c 20 47 61 73 20 4c 61 77 7d 00 09 50 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 l.Gas.Law}..Partial.pressure.is.
1a460 22 74 68 65 20 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 70 72 65 73 73 "the.fraction.of.the.total.press
1a480 75 72 65 20 65 78 65 72 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 20 6d 69 78 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 74 68 ure.exerted.by.a.mix.of.gases.th
1a4a0 61 74 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 69 62 75 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 64 69 76 69 64 75 at.is.contributed.by.an.individu
1a4c0 61 6c 20 67 61 73 2e 22 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 20 6f 66 20 6f 6e al.gas.".(i.e..the.pressur.of.on
1a4e0 65 20 67 61 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 65 29 2e 20 24 50 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 70 72 e.gas.in.a.mixture)..$Partial.pr
1a500 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 3d 20 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 50 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 72 65 essure.=.\frac{Pressure.if.there
1a520 20 77 65 72 65 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 6f 6e 65 20 67 61 73 7d 7b 41 63 74 75 61 6c 20 70 .were.only.the.one.gas}{Actual.p
1a540 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 7d 24 2e 20 44 61 6c 74 6f 6e 27 73 20 4c 61 77 20 73 74 61 74 65 73 20 74 ressure}$..Dalton's.Law.states.t
1a560 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 hat.the.total.pressure.is.equal.
1a580 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 6d 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 to.the.sum.of.the.partial.pressu
1a5a0 72 65 73 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 68 69 63 res..Note.that.the.fraction.whic
1a5c0 68 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 75 70 20 h.the.partial.pressure.makes.up.
1a5e0 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 74 6f 74 61 6c 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 65 71 75 61 6c 20 74 of.the.total.pressure.is.equal.t
1a600 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 6c 61 72 20 66 72 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 o.the.molar.fraction.by.the.idea
1a620 6c 20 67 61 73 20 6c 61 77 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 66 61 63 74 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 65 6d 70 l.gas.law.and.the.fact.that.temp
1a640 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 erature.and.volume.are.the.same.
1a660 66 6f 72 20 61 6c 6c 20 67 61 73 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 50 for.all.gases...\subsubsection{P
1a680 61 72 74 69 61 6c 20 50 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 7d 00 09 5c 65 6e 64 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 72 7d 00 artial.Pressure}..\end{tabular}.
1a6a0 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 47 61 79 2d 4c 75 73 73 61 63 27 73 20 4c 61 77 20 26 20 50 72 65 ..........Gay-Lussac's.Law.&.Pre
1a6c0 73 73 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 54 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 ssure.and.Temperature.are.direct
1a6e0 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 09 20 20 43 68 61 72 6c 65 27 73 ly.related.\\.\hline....Charle's
1a700 20 4c 61 77 20 26 20 56 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 61 6e 64 20 54 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 72 .Law.&.Volume.and.Temperature.ar
1a720 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 09 20 20 e.directly.related.\\.\hline....
1a740 42 6f 79 6c 65 27 73 20 4c 61 77 20 26 20 56 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 61 6e 64 20 50 72 65 73 73 75 72 Boyle's.Law.&.Volume.and.Pressur
1a760 65 20 61 72 65 20 69 6e 76 65 72 73 65 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e e.are.inversely.related.\\.\hlin
1a780 65 00 09 20 20 4c 61 77 20 26 20 52 65 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 5c 5c 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 09 20 e....Law.&.Relation.\\.\hline...
1a7a0 20 5c 68 6c 69 6e 65 00 09 5c 62 65 67 69 6e 7b 74 61 62 75 6c 61 72 7d 7b 7c 63 7c 63 7c 7d 00 .\hline..\begin{tabular}{|c|c|}.
1a7c0 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4f 74 68 65 72 20 4c 61 77 73 7d 00 09 41 6c 6c .\subsubsection{Other.Laws}..All
1a7e0 20 67 61 73 20 6c 61 77 73 20 61 72 65 20 6d 65 72 65 6c 79 20 65 78 74 65 6e 73 69 6f 6e 73 20 .gas.laws.are.merely.extensions.
1a800 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 6c 61 77 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 of.the.ideal.gas.law.mentioned.i
1a820 6e 20 55 6e 69 74 20 49 49 20 54 6f 70 69 63 20 31 2e 31 2e 20 54 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 n.Unit.II.Topic.1.1..The.ideal.g
1a840 61 73 20 6c 61 77 20 69 73 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 50 5f 31 56 5f 31 7d 7b 4e 5f 31 54 5f 31 7d as.law.is.$\frac{P_1V_1}{N_1T_1}
1a860 3d 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 50 5f 32 56 5f 32 7d 7b 4e 5f 32 54 5f 32 7d 24 20 28 4e 20 69 73 20 6e 75 =\frac{P_2V_2}{N_2T_2}$.(N.is.nu
1a880 6d 62 65 72 20 69 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 2c 20 54 20 69 73 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 mber.in.moles,.T.is.temperature.
1a8a0 69 6e 20 4b 65 6c 76 69 6e 2c 20 50 20 69 73 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 2c 20 56 20 69 73 20 76 in.Kelvin,.P.is.pressure,.V.is.v
1a8c0 6f 6c 75 6d 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 69 73 20 68 6f 6c 64 73 20 66 6f 72 20 61 6e 79 20 74 77 olume,.and.this.holds.for.any.tw
1a8e0 6f 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 61 63 63 6f 72 64 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 20 41 76 6f 67 61 o.ideal.gases.according.to.Avoga
1a900 64 72 6f 27 73 20 4c 61 77 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 69 72 73 74 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 64 dro's.Law)..The.first.of.these.d
1a920 65 72 69 76 61 74 69 76 65 20 6c 61 77 73 20 69 73 20 42 6f 79 6c 65 27 73 20 4c 61 77 3a 20 77 erivative.laws.is.Boyle's.Law:.w
1a940 68 65 72 65 20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 79 20 61 6e 64 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 72 65 here.quantity.and.temperature.re
1a960 6d 61 69 6e 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 2c 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 69 6e 76 65 72 main.constant,.pressure.is.inver
1a980 73 65 6c 79 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 6c 6c sely.related.to.volume..This.all
1a9a0 6f 77 73 20 73 69 6d 70 6c 65 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 6c 61 74 69 6e 67 ows.simple.calculations.relating
1a9c0 20 63 68 61 6e 67 69 6e 67 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 61 6e 64 2f 6f 72 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 .changing.volume.and/or.pressure
1a9e0 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 61 73 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f .of.a.gas..........\subsubsectio
1aa00 6e 7b 42 6f 79 6c 65 27 73 20 4c 61 77 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 47 n{Boyle's.Law}.....\subsection{G
1aa20 61 73 20 4c 61 77 73 7d 00 09 42 65 63 75 61 73 65 20 6f 66 20 73 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 as.Laws}..Becuase.of.stoichiomet
1aa40 72 69 63 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 61 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 ric.ratios.as.mentioned.in.the.p
1aa60 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 2c 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 6d revious.lesson,.such.as.$\frac{m
1aa80 6f 6c 20 4e 61 43 6c 7d 7b 6d 6f 6c 20 43 6c 5e 2b 7d 24 20 69 6e 20 61 20 74 61 62 6c 65 20 73 ol.NaCl}{mol.Cl^+}$.in.a.table.s
1aaa0 61 6c 74 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 64 69 6d 65 alt.decomposition.reaction,.dime
1aac0 6e 73 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 61 6e 61 6c 79 73 69 73 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 66 75 72 74 68 65 72 20 nsional.analysis.can.be.further.
1aae0 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 70 72 used.to.determine.the.mass.of.pr
1ab00 6f 64 75 63 74 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 oduct.created.by.a.given.chemica
1ab20 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 49 6e 74 65 l.reaction...\subsubsection{Inte
1ab40 72 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 43 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 6d rchemical.Calculations}..Molar.m
1ab60 61 73 73 20 69 73 20 69 6e 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 67 72 61 6d 73 20 6f 66 20 65 6c 65 6d ass.is.in.units.of.grams.of.elem
1ab80 65 6e 74 20 70 65 72 20 6d 6f 6c 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 2c 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 ent.per.mol..For.example,.$\frac
1aba0 7b 35 38 2e 34 34 67 20 4e 61 43 6c 7d 7b 6d 6f 6c 20 4e 61 43 6c 7d 24 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 {58.44g.NaCl}{mol.NaCl}$..This.c
1abc0 61 6e 20 62 65 20 65 78 70 61 6e 64 65 64 20 74 6f 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 an.be.expanded.to.a.given.number
1abe0 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 20 6f 72 20 61 20 6d 61 73 73 20 75 73 69 6e 67 20 64 69 6d 65 6e 73 .of.moles.or.a.mass.using.dimens
1ac00 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 61 6e 61 6c 79 73 69 73 20 28 6e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 64 69 6d 65 6e 73 ional.analysis.(note.that.dimens
1ac20 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 61 6e 61 6c 79 73 69 73 20 70 65 72 6d 69 74 73 20 69 6e 76 65 72 73 69 6f 6e ional.analysis.permits.inversion
1ac40 20 6f 66 20 61 20 72 61 74 69 6f 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 6d 6f 6c 20 4e .of.a.ratio.such.as.$\frac{mol.N
1ac60 61 43 6c 7d 7b 35 38 2e 34 34 67 20 4e 61 43 6c 7d 24 29 2e 20 41 6c 73 6f 2c 20 66 6f 72 20 63 aCl}{58.44g.NaCl}$)..Also,.for.c
1ac80 6c 61 72 69 74 79 27 73 20 73 61 6b 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 65 6c 65 6d 65 6e 74 20 66 6f 72 6d 75 larity's.sake,.the.element.formu
1aca0 6c 61 20 6e 65 78 74 20 74 6f 20 65 61 63 68 20 75 6e 69 74 20 69 73 20 6e 65 63 65 73 73 61 72 la.next.to.each.unit.is.necessar
1acc0 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 64 6f 65 73 6e 27 74 20 63 61 6e 63 65 6c 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c y,.and.doesn't.cancel..........\
1ace0 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 4d 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 4d 61 73 subsubsection{Molar.Mass.and.Mas
1ad00 73 2d 74 6f 2d 4d 6f 6c 65 20 52 61 74 69 6f 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e s-to-Mole.Ratio}.....\subsection
1ad20 7b 53 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 69 63 20 43 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 53 {Stoichiometric.Calculations}..S
1ad40 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 69 73 20 62 61 73 65 64 20 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 2c toichiometry.is.based.on.ratios,
1ad60 20 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 24 52 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 3a 50 72 6f 64 75 63 74 24 2c 20 24 52 65 .such.as.$Reactant:Product$,.$Re
1ad80 61 63 74 61 6e 74 3a 52 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 24 2c 20 6f 72 20 24 50 72 6f 64 75 63 74 3a 50 72 actant:Reactant$,.or.$Product:Pr
1ada0 6f 64 75 63 74 24 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 2c 20 oduct$..In.the.previous.lesson,.
1adc0 74 68 69 73 20 77 61 73 20 65 78 70 6c 6f 72 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 77 61 79 20 74 6f 20 this.was.explored.as.the.way.to.
1ade0 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 20 74 68 65 6f 72 65 74 69 63 61 6c 20 79 69 65 6c 64 2c 20 73 6f 20 determine.theoretical.yield,.so.
1ae00 74 68 65 20 66 6f 75 6e 64 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 73 68 6f 75 6c 64 20 61 6c 72 65 61 64 79 20 62 65 the.foundation.should.already.be
1ae20 20 73 65 74 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 61 72 65 .set..Note.that.these.ratios.are
1ae40 20 6d 6f 6c 61 72 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 63 61 6c 63 75 6c 61 74 65 64 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 74 68 .molar.ratios.calculated.from.th
1ae60 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 65 66 66 69 63 69 65 6e 74 73 20 6e 65 78 e.ratios.of.the.coefficients.nex
1ae80 74 20 74 6f 20 65 61 63 68 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 64 t.to.each.compound.in.a.balanced
1aea0 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 65 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 .chemical.equation..These.ratios
1aec0 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 74 77 6f .represent.the.amount.of.any.two
1aee0 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 64 20 .given.substances.in.a.balanced.
1af00 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 69 67 6e 6f 72 69 6e 67 20 74 6f 74 61 chemical.reaction,.ignoring.tota
1af20 6c 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 75 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 63 61 6c l.amount,.and.can.be.used.to.cal
1af40 63 75 6c 61 74 65 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 6f 66 20 62 79 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 culate.the.amounts.of.byproducts
1af60 2c 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f ,.amount.of.reactant.required.to
1af80 20 72 65 61 63 74 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 2c 20 6c 69 6d 69 74 69 6e 67 20 72 65 61 63 .react.completely,.limiting.reac
1afa0 74 61 6e 74 73 2c 20 73 74 6f 72 61 67 65 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 6d 65 6e 74 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 tants,.storage.requirements,.and
1afc0 20 68 6f 77 20 6d 75 63 68 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 20 69 73 20 63 72 65 61 74 65 64 20 77 69 74 .how.much.product.is.created.wit
1afe0 68 20 61 20 63 65 72 74 61 69 6e 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 2e 00 h.a.certain.amount.of.reactant..
1b000 61 64 00 00 7c 00 00 00 d0 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 0e 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 26 0d 00 00 fd 0c 00 00 ad..|...................&.......
1b020 de 0c 00 00 a7 0c 00 00 eb 09 00 00 c8 09 00 00 74 07 00 00 54 07 00 00 9f 05 00 00 80 05 00 00 ................t...T...........
1b040 31 04 00 00 0f 04 00 00 f6 00 00 00 d0 00 00 00 cf 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 1...............................
1b060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1b0c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b .................\subsubsection{
1b0e0 45 66 66 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 43 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 43 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e Effective.Collisions}..Collision
1b100 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6d 6f 64 65 6c 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 78 70 6c 61 69 .Theory.is.the.model.that.explai
1b120 6e 73 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 73 73 75 ns.chemical.reactions.which.assu
1b140 6d 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 27 20 72 61 74 mes.that.chemical.reactions'.rat
1b160 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 63 6f 6c es.are.proportional.to.their.col
1b180 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 28 6e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 2c 20 69 6e 20 72 65 61 6c 69 lision.rate.(note.that,.in.reali
1b1a0 74 79 2c 20 6f 72 69 65 6e 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 73 70 65 65 64 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 ty,.orientation.and.speed.of.the
1b1c0 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 69 6d 70 6f 72 74 61 6e 74 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 .molecules.are.important,.but.th
1b1e0 65 20 72 61 74 65 20 69 73 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 70 72 6f 70 6f 72 74 69 6f 6e 61 6c 20 74 6f 20 e.rate.is.still.proportional.to.
1b200 74 68 65 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 29 2e 20 4b 69 6e 65 74 the.number.of.collisions)..Kinet
1b220 69 63 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 61 72 20 74 68 65 6f 72 79 20 61 6c 6c 6f 77 73 20 74 68 65 20 69 ic.molecular.theory.allows.the.i
1b240 64 65 61 20 6f 66 20 61 20 4d 61 78 77 65 6c 6c 2d 42 6f 6c 74 7a 6d 61 6e 6e 20 44 69 73 74 72 dea.of.a.Maxwell-Boltzmann.Distr
1b260 69 62 75 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 64 ibution.in.that.molecules.have.d
1b280 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 73 70 65 65 64 73 20 65 76 65 6e 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 ifferent.speeds.even.at.the.same
1b2a0 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 54 68 65 20 4d 61 78 77 65 6c 6c 2d 42 6f 6c 74 7a 6d .temperature..The.Maxwell-Boltzm
1b2c0 61 6e 6e 20 44 69 73 74 72 69 62 75 74 69 6f 6e 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 62 65 73 20 68 6f 77 20 6d ann.Distribution.describes.how.m
1b2e0 61 6e 79 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 73 70 65 any.molecules.are.at.a.given.spe
1b300 65 64 20 66 6f 72 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 57 68 65 6e ed.for.a.given.temperature..When
1b320 20 67 72 61 70 68 65 64 2c 20 74 68 65 20 76 65 72 74 69 63 61 6c 20 61 78 69 73 20 74 79 70 69 .graphed,.the.vertical.axis.typi
1b340 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 2f 66 72 65 71 75 cally.represents.the.count/frequ
1b360 65 6e 63 79 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 68 6f 72 69 7a 6f ency.of.particles.and.the.horizo
1b380 6e 74 61 6c 20 61 78 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 76 65 6c 6f 63 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 ntal.axis.the.velocity.of.the.pa
1b3a0 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 64 69 73 74 72 69 62 75 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 rticles..These.distributions.are
1b3c0 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 62 65 6c 6c 20 63 75 72 76 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 .typically.bell.curves,.and.the.
1b3e0 22 6c 6f 6e 67 65 72 22 20 74 68 65 20 63 75 72 76 65 2c 20 74 68 65 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 74 "longer".the.curve,.the.higher.t
1b400 68 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 he.temperature..\subsubsection{C
1b420 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 20 54 68 65 6f 72 79 7d 00 09 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 ollision.Theory}..Reaction.rate.
1b440 69 73 20 68 6f 77 20 71 75 69 63 6b 6c 79 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 63 6f 6e 76 65 72 74 is.how.quickly.reactants.convert
1b460 20 74 6f 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 64 65 70 65 6e 64 73 20 69 6e 76 65 72 .to.products..This.depends.inver
1b480 73 65 6c 79 20 6f 6e 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 48 69 67 68 20 sely.on.activation.energy..High.
1b4a0 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 69 6e 20 67 72 61 activation.energies.(like.in.gra
1b4c0 70 68 69 74 65 20 74 6f 20 64 69 61 6d 6f 6e 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 29 20 6d 65 61 6e 20 phite.to.diamond.reaction).mean.
1b4e0 6c 6f 77 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 6f 77 20 61 63 74 69 low.reaction.rates,.and.low.acti
1b500 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 69 65 73 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 62 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 73 6f 64 vation.energies.(like.baking.sod
1b520 61 20 61 6e 64 20 76 69 6e 65 67 61 72 29 20 6d 65 61 6e 20 76 65 72 79 20 68 69 67 68 20 72 65 a.and.vinegar).mean.very.high.re
1b540 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 6c 79 action.rates..This.is.completely
1b560 20 75 6e 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 47 5f 7b 72 78 6e 7d 24 2e 00 .unrelated.to.$\Delta.G_{rxn}$..
1b580 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 52 61 74 65 7d 00 09 .\subsubsection{Reaction.Rate}..
1b5a0 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 72 65 61 72 72 61 6e 67 65 20 61 74 6f Chemical.reactions.rearrange.ato
1b5c0 6d 73 20 69 6e 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 62 79 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 61 6e 64 2f 6f 72 ms.in.molecules.by.making.and/or
1b5e0 20 62 72 65 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 62 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 2c 20 61 73 20 6d 65 6e 74 69 .breaking.bonds..Bonds,.as.menti
1b600 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 75 6e 69 74 73 2c 20 61 72 65 20 73 74 61 62 oned.in.previous.units,.are.stab
1b620 6c 65 20 65 6c 65 63 74 72 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 66 69 67 75 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 73 2d 2d 2d 69 6d 70 le.electron.configurations---imp
1b640 6c 79 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 69 6e 70 75 74 20 lying.that.energy.must.be.input.
1b660 74 6f 20 73 74 61 72 74 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 6e 67 20 6f 72 20 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 62 to.start.decomposing.or.making.b
1b680 6f 6e 64 73 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 73 74 69 6c 6c 20 6d 75 73 onds..Note.that.energy.still.mus
1b6a0 74 20 62 65 20 69 6e 70 75 74 20 74 6f 20 73 74 61 72 74 20 6d 6f 73 74 20 73 70 6f 6e 74 61 6e t.be.input.to.start.most.spontan
1b6c0 65 6f 75 73 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 62 75 74 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 63 6f eous.reactions,.but.they.will.co
1b6e0 6e 74 69 6e 75 65 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 6f 77 6e 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 65 6e 65 72 ntinue.on.their.own.because.ener
1b700 67 79 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 73 75 70 70 6c gy.from.previous.reactions.suppl
1b720 69 65 73 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 66 6f 72 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 ies.activation.energy.for.other.
1b740 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 reactant.molecules...\subsubsect
1b760 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 42 6f 6e 64 73 7d 00 09 41 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 ion{Chemical.Bonds}..Activation.
1b780 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 28 24 45 5f 41 24 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 6d 69 6e 69 6d 75 6d 20 61 6d energy.($E_A$).is.the.minimum.am
1b7a0 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 69 74 69 61 74 65 20 61 20 63 68 65 ount.of.energy.to.initiate.a.che
1b7c0 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 62 72 6f 75 67 68 74 20 mical.reaction.(this.is.brought.
1b7e0 6f 6e 20 62 79 20 61 6e 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 69 6e 20 66 72 65 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 on.by.an.increase.in.free.energy
1b800 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f .of.compounds.during.the.reactio
1b820 6e 2d 2d 2d 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 61 62 73 6f 72 n---meaning.that.energy.is.absor
1b840 62 65 64 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 65 66 6f 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 60 bed.by.the.reaction.before.the.`
1b860 60 68 75 6d 70 27 27 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 `hump''.of.the.activation.energy
1b880 20 69 73 20 72 65 61 63 68 65 64 29 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 20 62 61 72 72 69 65 72 20 .is.reached)..This.is.a.barrier.
1b8a0 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 6d 75 73 74 20 62 65 20 6f 76 65 72 to.the.reaction.and.must.be.over
1b8c0 63 6f 6d 65 20 62 65 66 6f 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 70 72 come.before.the.reaction.will.pr
1b8e0 6f 63 65 65 64 2e 20 46 6f 72 20 61 6c 6c 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 2c oceed..For.all.stable.compounds,
1b900 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 .the.reaction.energy.is.positive
1b920 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 77 69 73 65 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 72 65 20 75 6e 73 74 .because.otherwise.they.are.unst
1b940 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 65 20 72 65 61 64 69 6c 79 20 28 74 68 65 20 able.and.decompose.readily.(the.
1b960 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2c 20 74 68 higher.the.activation.energy,.th
1b980 65 20 6c 65 73 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 6c 79 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 74 6f e.less.likely.the.reaction.is.to
1b9a0 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 75 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 73 6c 6f 77 6c 79 20 69 74 20 6f .occur.and.thus.more.slowly.it.o
1b9c0 63 63 75 72 73 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 41 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 ccurs)...\subsubsection{Activati
1b9e0 6f 6e 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 00 09 24 47 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 65 20 65 6e 65 72 on.Energy}..$G$.is.the.free.ener
1ba00 67 79 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 2c 20 68 6f 77 20 6d 75 63 68 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 gy.of.a.system,.how.much.energy.
1ba20 69 73 20 72 65 61 64 69 6c 79 20 61 76 61 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 77 6f 72 6b 20 is.readily.available.to.do.work.
1ba40 69 6e 20 61 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 2e 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 47 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 in.a.system..$\Delta.G$.is.the.c
1ba60 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 66 72 65 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 76 65 72 20 74 69 hange.in.the.free.energy.over.ti
1ba80 6d 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 47 5f 7b 72 78 6e 7d 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 me,.and.$\Delta.G_{rxn}$.is.the.
1baa0 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 66 72 65 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 20 61 20 72 change.in.free.energy.during.a.r
1bac0 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 49 66 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 47 5f 7b 72 78 6e 7d 20 3c 20 30 24 eaction..If.$\Delta.G_{rxn}.<.0$
1bae0 2c 20 74 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 66 ,.then.the.reactants.have.more.f
1bb00 72 65 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2c 20 61 6e ree.energy.than.the.products,.an
1bb20 64 20 74 68 69 73 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 22 d.this.type.of.reaction.occurs."
1bb40 73 70 6f 6e 74 61 6e 65 6f 75 73 6c 79 3a 22 20 69 66 20 61 6e 79 20 70 61 72 74 73 20 6f 66 20 spontaneously:".if.any.parts.of.
1bb60 74 68 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 73 20 6d 65 65 74 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f the.chemicals.meet.the.activatio
1bb80 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 74 68 65 20 72 n.energy.for.the.reaction,.the.r
1bba0 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 61 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 20 63 6f 6e 74 69 6e 75 65 2e 20 54 68 65 eaction.is.able.to.continue..The
1bbc0 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 6f 66 20 74 68 69 73 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 .opposite.of.this.type.of.reacti
1bbe0 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 6e 6f 6e 73 70 6f 6e 74 61 6e 65 6f 75 73 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 on.is.nonspontaneous.reactions.w
1bc00 68 65 72 65 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 47 5f 7b 72 78 6e 7d 20 3e 20 30 24 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 here.$\Delta.G_{rxn}.>.0$..This.
1bc20 6d 65 61 6e 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 6d 6f 72 means.that.the.products.have.mor
1bc40 65 20 66 72 65 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 e.free.energy.than.the.reactants
1bc60 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 68 61 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 6c ,.and.energy.has.to.be.constantl
1bc80 79 20 61 64 64 65 64 20 74 6f 20 6d 61 6b 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e y.added.to.make.the.reaction.con
1bca0 74 69 6e 75 65 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6e tinue..........\subsubsection{En
1bcc0 65 72 67 79 20 44 69 61 67 72 61 6d 73 20 61 6e 64 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 47 24 7d 00 20 20 ergy.Diagrams.and.$\Delta.G$}...
1bce0 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 52 61 74 65 7d 00 5c 73 65 ..\subsection{Reaction.Rate}.\se
1bd00 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 52 61 74 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 45 71 75 69 6c 69 62 ction{Reaction.Rates.and.Equilib
1bd20 72 69 75 6d 7d 00 09 41 73 20 73 74 61 74 65 64 20 72 65 70 65 61 74 65 64 6c 79 20 69 6e 20 74 rium}..As.stated.repeatedly.in.t
1bd40 68 65 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 74 77 6f 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 76 6f 6c he.previous.two.lessons,.the.vol
1bd60 75 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 67 61 73 20 69 73 20 69 72 72 65 6c 65 76 61 ume.of.a.mole.of.gas.is.irreleva
1bd80 6e 74 20 74 6f 20 69 74 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 65 nt.to.its.composition..This.is.e
1bda0 78 65 6d 70 6c 69 66 69 65 64 20 62 79 20 6d 6f 6c 61 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 3a 20 6f 6e 65 20 xemplified.by.molar.volume:.one.
1bdc0 6d 6f 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 79 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 73 20 61 74 20 73 74 61 6e 64 61 72 mole.of.any.ideal.gas.at.standar
1bde0 64 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 28 24 30 5e 7b d.temperature.and.pressure.($0^{
1be00 5c 63 69 72 63 7d 43 3d 32 37 33 4b 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 31 61 74 6d 20 3d 20 31 30 31 2e 33 6b \circ}C=273K$.and.$1atm.=.101.3k
1be20 50 61 20 3d 20 37 36 30 20 74 6f 72 72 24 29 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 6d 6f 6c Pa.=.760.torr$).always.has.a.mol
1be40 61 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 6f 66 20 24 32 32 2e 34 4c 24 2e 20 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 ar.volume.of.$22.4L$..Molar.volu
1be60 6d 65 20 76 61 72 69 65 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 70 me.varies.with.temperature.and.p
1be80 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 62 75 74 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 69 73 74 65 6e 74 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 ressure.but.is.consistent.betwee
1bea0 6e 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 2e 20 4d 6f 6c 61 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 69 6d 70 6c 69 n.substances..Molar.volume.impli
1bec0 65 73 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 72 6f 27 73 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 3a 20 60 60 69 66 20 74 77 es.Avogadro's.Principle:.``if.tw
1bee0 6f 20 67 61 73 20 73 61 6d 70 6c 65 73 20 63 6f 6e 74 61 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 6e o.gas.samples.contain.the.same.n
1bf00 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c 20 74 68 65 79 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 68 61 umber.of.particles,.they.will.ha
1bf20 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 61 74 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 74 65 ve.the.same.volume.at.a.given.te
1bf40 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 2e 27 27 20 41 76 6f 67 61 64 mperature.and.pressure.''.Avogad
1bf60 72 6f 27 73 20 50 72 69 6e 63 69 70 6c 65 20 69 6d 70 6c 69 65 73 20 74 68 61 74 20 69 6e 20 73 ro's.Principle.implies.that.in.s
1bf80 74 6f 69 63 68 69 6f 6d 65 74 72 79 20 28 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 6f 66 20 63 6f 65 66 66 69 63 69 toichiometry.(ratios.of.coeffici
1bfa0 65 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 29 2c 20 74 68 65 ents.in.chemical.reactions),.the
1bfc0 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 73 20 63 61 6e 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 6f 66 .numbers.can.represent.ratios.of
1bfe0 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 2c 20 6d 6f 6c 65 73 2c 20 6f 72 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 73 2e 09 00 .particles,.moles,.or.volumes...
1c000 61 64 00 00 5a 00 00 00 be 00 00 00 00 10 00 00 12 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 a6 0e 00 00 6c 0e 00 00 ad..Z.......................l...
1c020 6a 0d 00 00 35 0d 00 00 de 0b 00 00 a4 0b 00 00 3c 0a 00 00 19 0a 00 00 e9 09 00 00 5a 08 00 00 j...5...........<...........Z...
1c040 34 08 00 00 65 06 00 00 37 06 00 00 f1 03 00 00 b4 03 00 00 fb 00 00 00 e0 00 00 00 be 00 00 00 4...e...7.......................
1c060 bd 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1c0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 20 20 ................................
1c0c0 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 7d 00 ......\subsubsection{Catalysts}.
1c0e0 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 7d 00 09 41 73 20 6d ....\subsection{Catalysts}..As.m
1c100 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 6c 65 73 73 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6c entioned.in.previous.lessons,.al
1c120 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 6e 76 6f 6c 76 69 6e 67 20 73 74 61 62 6c 65 20 63 6f 6d l.reactions.involving.stable.com
1c140 70 6f 75 6e 64 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 6e 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 pounds.have.an.activation.energy
1c160 2d 2d 2d 74 68 65 20 6d 69 6e 69 6d 75 6d 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 ---the.minimum.amount.of.energy.
1c180 6e 65 65 64 65 64 20 74 6f 20 73 74 61 72 74 20 61 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 needed.to.start.a.chemical.react
1c1a0 69 6f 6e 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 68 65 61 74 69 6e 67 20 61 20 6d 61 74 63 68 20 74 6f 20 ion.(such.as.heating.a.match.to.
1c1c0 6d 61 6b 65 20 69 74 20 73 74 61 72 74 20 62 75 72 6e 69 6e 67 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 make.it.start.burning)..The.acti
1c1e0 76 61 74 65 64 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 20 69 73 20 61 20 60 60 73 68 6f 72 74 2d 6c 69 76 65 64 vated.complex.is.a.``short-lived
1c200 2c 20 68 69 67 68 2d 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6d 65 64 69 61 74 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 ,.high-energy.intermediate.betwe
1c220 65 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2c 27 27 20 77 68 69 en.reactants.and.products,''.whi
1c240 63 68 20 69 73 20 6e 65 63 65 73 73 61 72 79 20 74 6f 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 20 61 20 72 65 ch.is.necessary.to.complete.a.re
1c260 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 73 6f 6e 20 77 68 79 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 action.and.the.reason.why.activa
1c280 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 72 65 71 75 69 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 62 72 69 6e 67 tion.energy.is.required.to.bring
1c2a0 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 74 6f 67 65 74 68 65 72 20 74 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 68 65 .substances.together.to.form.the
1c2c0 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 65 64 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 2e 20 54 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 .activated.complex..The.activati
1c2e0 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 64 65 66 69 6e 65 64 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 66 66 on.energy.is.defined.as.the.diff
1c300 65 72 65 6e 63 65 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 65 64 20 63 6f 6d erence.between.the.activated.com
1c320 70 6c 65 78 27 73 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 plex's.potential.energy.and.the.
1c340 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 27 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 69 reactants'.potential.energy..Thi
1c360 73 20 69 73 20 72 65 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 65 64 20 61 73 20 24 45 5f 61 24 2e 20 41 73 20 61 63 s.is.represented.as.$E_a$..As.ac
1c380 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 2c 20 72 65 61 63 74 tivation.energy.increases,.react
1c3a0 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 ion.rate.decreases...\subsubsect
1c3c0 69 6f 6e 7b 41 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 41 63 ion{Activation.Energy.and.the.Ac
1c3e0 74 69 76 61 74 65 64 20 43 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 7d 00 09 45 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 72 65 tivated.Complex}..Endothermic.re
1c400 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 6f 66 20 65 78 6f 74 actions.are.the.opposite.of.exot
1c420 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 3a 20 74 68 65 79 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 20 65 6e hermic.reactions:.they.absorb.en
1c440 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 6d 65 6c 74 69 6e 67 2c 20 70 68 6f ergy..These.include.melting,.pho
1c460 74 6f 73 79 6e 74 68 65 73 69 73 2c 20 64 65 63 6f 6d 70 6f 73 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 61 6e 64 20 64 tosynthesis,.decomposition.and.d
1c480 65 68 79 64 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 ehydration.reactions,.and.the.di
1c4a0 73 73 6f 63 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 73 6f 6d 65 20 73 61 6c 74 73 2e 20 49 6e 20 74 68 65 ssociation.of.some.salts..In.the
1c4c0 73 65 2c 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 se,.reactants.always.have.lower.
1c4e0 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 6e 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2e 20 potential.energy.than.products..
1c500 46 6f 72 20 62 6f 74 68 20 65 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 61 6e 64 20 65 78 6f 74 68 65 72 For.both.endothermic.and.exother
1c520 6d 69 63 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 68 61 73 20 mic.reactions,.the.reaction.has.
1c540 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 70 65 72 74 79 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 48 5f 7b 72 78 6e 7d 24 20 2d 2d the.property.$\Delta.H_{rxn}$.--
1c560 2d 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 -.the.change.in.potential.energy
1c580 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 2e 20 45 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 .of.the.substances..Endothermic.
1c5a0 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 70 6f 73 69 74 69 76 65 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 reactions.have.positive.$\Delta.
1c5c0 48 24 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 68 69 67 H$.because.the.products.have.hig
1c5e0 68 65 72 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 her.potential.energy.than.the.re
1c600 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 2e 20 54 68 65 20 6f 70 70 6f 73 69 74 65 20 69 73 20 74 72 75 65 20 6f 66 actants..The.opposite.is.true.of
1c620 20 65 78 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 .exothermic.reactions...\subsubs
1c640 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6e 64 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 50 61 74 68 ection{Endothermic.Reaction.Path
1c660 77 61 79 7d 00 09 45 78 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 72 way}..Exothermic.Reactions.are.r
1c680 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2e 20 54 eactions.which.release.energy..T
1c6a0 68 69 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 77 68 65 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e his.occurs.when.the.potential.en
1c6c0 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 69 73 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 ergy.of.the.reactants.is.higher.
1c6e0 74 68 61 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 than.the.potential.energy.of.the
1c700 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 28 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 72 65 6c .products.(kinetic.energy.is.rel
1c720 65 61 73 65 64 20 74 6f 20 63 6f 6e 73 65 72 76 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 29 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 eased.to.conserve.energy)..These
1c740 20 69 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 63 6f 6e 64 65 6e 73 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 63 6f 6d 62 75 73 74 69 6f .include.condensation,.combustio
1c760 6e 2c 20 64 69 73 73 6f 63 69 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 73 74 72 6f 6e 67 20 61 63 69 64 73 2c n,.dissociation.of.strong.acids,
1c780 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 69 66 69 63 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 63 65 6d 65 6e 74 2c 20 63 6f 6e 63 72 .solidification.of.cement,.concr
1c7a0 65 74 65 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 65 70 6f 78 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 74 68 65 72 6d 69 74 65 ete,.and.epoxy,.and.the.thermite
1c7c0 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 66 6f 6c 6c 6f 77 20 74 68 65 20 65 78 6f 74 .reaction..These.follow.the.exot
1c7e0 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 hermic.reaction.pathway.which.is
1c800 20 74 68 65 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 69 6e 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e 65 72 67 .the.decrease.in.potential.energ
1c820 79 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 74 65 72 69 61 6c 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 y.of.the.materials...\subsubsect
1c840 69 6f 6e 7b 45 78 6f 74 68 65 72 6d 69 63 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 09 41 20 72 65 61 ion{Exothermic.Reactions}..A.rea
1c860 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 67 72 61 70 68 20 69 73 20 61 20 64 69 61 67 72 61 6d ction.pathway.graph.is.a.diagram
1c880 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 62 65 74 77 65 65 6e .of.the.change.in.energy.between
1c8a0 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 .reactants.and.products..This.is
1c8c0 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 69 6d 65 73 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 61 20 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 6e .sometimes.called.a.potential.en
1c8e0 65 72 67 79 20 64 69 61 67 72 61 6d 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 69 74 20 67 72 61 70 68 73 20 74 ergy.diagram.because.it.graphs.t
1c900 68 65 20 47 69 62 62 73 20 46 72 65 65 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 2f 70 6f 74 65 6e 74 69 61 6c 20 65 he.Gibbs.Free.Energy/potential.e
1c920 6e 65 72 67 79 20 6f 76 65 72 20 74 69 6d 65 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 20 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f nergy.over.time.during.a.reactio
1c940 6e 2e 20 45 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 76 65 n..Energy.is.typically.on.the.ve
1c960 72 74 69 63 61 6c 20 61 78 69 73 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 69 6d 65 2f 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 70 rtical.axis,.and.time/reaction.p
1c980 72 6f 67 72 65 73 73 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 65 20 68 6f 72 69 7a 6f 6e 74 61 6c 20 rogression.is.on.the.horizontal.
1c9a0 61 78 69 73 20 28 6d 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 61 74 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 axis.(meaning.that.reactants.are
1c9c0 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6c 65 66 74 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 74 6f 20 74 68 65 .to.the.left.and.products.to.the
1c9e0 20 72 69 67 68 74 29 2e 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b .right)..........\subsubsection{
1ca00 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 50 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 47 72 61 70 68 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 Reaction.Pathway.Graphs}.....\su
1ca20 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 50 61 74 68 77 61 79 73 7d 00 09 52 65 61 bsection{Reaction.Pathways}..Rea
1ca40 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 75 72 66 61 63 65 20 6f 66 20 73 ctions.occur.at.the.surface.of.s
1ca60 6f 6c 69 64 73 2c 20 73 6f 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c olids,.so.decreasing.the.particl
1ca80 65 20 73 69 7a 65 20 28 73 75 63 68 20 61 73 20 66 72 6f 6d 20 6f 6e 65 20 6c 61 72 67 65 20 63 e.size.(such.as.from.one.large.c
1caa0 75 62 65 20 74 6f 20 38 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 65 72 20 63 75 62 65 73 29 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 69 6e 63 ube.to.8.smaller.cubes).will.inc
1cac0 72 65 61 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 63 61 rease.the.reaction.rate..This.ca
1cae0 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 61 70 70 6c 79 20 74 6f 20 63 68 61 6e 67 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 73 68 61 n.also.apply.to.changing.the.sha
1cb00 70 65 20 28 61 20 73 70 68 65 72 65 20 77 69 6c 6c 20 68 61 76 65 20 61 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 72 pe.(a.sphere.will.have.a.lower.r
1cb20 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 74 68 61 6e 20 61 20 73 70 69 6b 79 20 62 61 6c 6c 29 20 eaction.rate.than.a.spiky.ball).
1cb40 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 73 6f 6c 69 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c of.the.solid.reactants..However,
1cb60 20 74 68 65 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 6c 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 79 70 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 74 6f 6f .the.particles.are.typically.too
1cb80 20 73 6d 61 6c 6c 20 61 73 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 69 73 20 74 6f 20 62 65 20 72 65 61 6c 69 73 74 .small.as.for.this.to.be.realist
1cba0 69 63 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 66 66 65 63 74 73 20 6f 66 20 53 ic...\subsubsection{Effects.of.S
1cbc0 75 72 66 61 63 65 20 41 72 65 61 20 6f 6e 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 52 61 74 65 7d 00 09 54 urface.Area.on.Reaction.Rate}..T
1cbe0 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 32 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 77 61 79 73 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 here.are.2.other.ways.to.increas
1cc00 65 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 61 6e 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 e.pressure.other.than.temperatur
1cc20 65 3a 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 72 65 61 63 e:.increasing.the.amount.of.reac
1cc40 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 76 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 28 77 68 69 tants.and.decreasing.volume.(whi
1cc60 63 68 20 6d 61 6b 65 73 20 73 65 6e 73 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 69 64 65 61 6c 20 67 61 ch.makes.sense.with.the.ideal.ga
1cc80 73 20 6c 61 77 29 2e 20 48 6f 77 65 76 65 72 2c 20 6e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 69 6e 63 72 65 s.law)..However,.note.that.incre
1cca0 61 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 69 73 20 6f 6e 6c 79 20 75 73 65 66 75 asing.the.pressure.is.only.usefu
1ccc0 6c 20 77 69 74 68 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 65 78 63 6c 75 73 69 76 65 6c 79 20 62 65 74 l.with.reactions.exclusively.bet
1cce0 77 65 65 6e 20 67 61 73 65 73 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 73 20 61 6e 64 20 73 ween.gases.because.liquids.and.s
1cd00 6f 6c 69 64 73 20 64 6f 6e 27 74 20 62 65 63 6f 6d 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 64 65 6e 73 65 20 77 69 olids.don't.become.more.dense.wi
1cd20 74 68 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 th.higher.pressures...\subsubsec
1cd40 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 66 66 65 63 74 20 6f 66 20 50 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 6f 6e 20 52 65 61 63 74 tion{Effect.of.Pressure.on.React
1cd60 69 6f 6e 20 52 61 74 65 7d 00 09 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 20 74 6f 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 ion.Rate}..Similar.to.temperatur
1cd80 65 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 62 79 20 69 e.increasing.collision.rate.by.i
1cda0 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 2f 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2c 20 ncreasing.pressure/temperature,.
1cdc0 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 61 75 73 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 66 72 65 71 75 65 concentration.causes.more.freque
1cde0 6e 74 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 2d 2d 2d 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 72 nt.collisions---increasing.the.r
1ce00 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 28 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6d ate.of.reaction.(concentration.m
1ce20 65 61 6e 69 6e 67 20 6e 75 6d 62 65 72 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 70 65 72 20 76 eaning.number.of.molecules.per.v
1ce40 6f 6c 75 6d 65 20 69 6e 20 61 6e 20 61 71 75 65 6f 75 73 20 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 66 6f olume.in.an.aqueous.solution,.fo
1ce60 72 20 65 78 61 6d 70 6c 65 29 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 66 66 65 r.example)...\subsubsection{Effe
1ce80 63 74 20 6f 66 20 43 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 6e 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 ct.of.Concentration.on.Reaction.
1cea0 52 61 74 65 7d 00 09 45 66 66 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 43 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 2c 20 61 73 20 Rate}..Effective.Collisions,.as.
1cec0 6d 65 6e 74 69 6f 6e 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 74 6f 70 69 63 2c mentioned.in.the.previous.topic,
1cee0 20 61 72 65 20 6e 65 63 65 73 73 61 72 79 20 28 61 73 20 63 6f 6d 70 61 72 65 64 20 74 6f 20 73 .are.necessary.(as.compared.to.s
1cf00 69 6d 70 6c 79 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 61 6c 6c 20 70 6f 73 73 69 imply.collisions.where.all.possi
1cf20 62 6c 65 20 74 6f 75 63 68 69 6e 67 20 6f 66 20 6d 6f 6c 65 63 75 6c 65 73 20 72 65 73 75 6c 74 ble.touching.of.molecules.result
1cf40 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 29 20 66 6f 72 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 s.in.a.reaction).for.chemical.re
1cf60 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 6f 63 63 75 72 2e 20 57 68 61 74 20 63 6f 6e 74 72 61 73 74 73 actions.to.occur..What.contrasts
1cf80 20 74 68 65 73 65 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 20 69 73 20 61 .these.effective.collisions.is.a
1cfa0 20 68 69 67 68 20 65 6e 6f 75 67 68 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 61 6e 64 20 .high.enough.kinetic.energy.and.
1cfc0 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 27 20 66 61 63 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 72 72 65 63 the.reactants'.facing.the.correc
1cfe0 74 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 74 6f 20 65 78 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 61 74 6f 6d 73 2e 00 t.directions.to.exchange.atoms..
1d000 61 64 00 00 2e 01 00 00 86 01 00 00 00 10 00 00 0f 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 c9 0e 00 00 a5 0e 00 00 ad..............................
1d020 70 0d 00 00 48 0d 00 00 5b 0c 00 00 42 0c 00 00 4a 09 00 00 14 09 00 00 d8 08 00 00 6d 06 00 00 p...H...[...B...J...........m...
1d040 39 06 00 00 4b 04 00 00 25 04 00 00 bb 01 00 00 86 01 00 00 85 01 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 9...K...%.......................
1d060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d0c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d0e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1d180 00 00 00 00 00 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 45 71 75 69 6c 69 .......\subsubsection{The.Equili
1d1a0 62 72 69 75 6d 20 43 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 20 28 24 4b 5f 7b 65 71 7d 24 29 7d 00 09 42 65 63 61 brium.Constant.($K_{eq}$)}..Beca
1d1c0 75 73 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 27 20 72 61 74 65 73 20 61 72 use.chemical.reactions'.rates.ar
1d1e0 65 20 72 65 6c 69 61 6e 74 20 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 65 71 75 69 e.reliant.on.concentration,.equi
1d200 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 20 63 61 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 20 65 76 65 6e 20 77 68 65 6e 20 61 20 66 6f librium.can.occur.even.when.a.fo
1d220 72 77 61 72 64 20 6f 72 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 69 rward.or.reverse.reaction.rate.i
1d240 73 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 2e 20 49 66 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 77 61 72 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f s.higher..If.the.forward.reactio
1d260 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 69 73 20 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 n.rate.is.higher.where.reactants
1d280 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 2c 20 74 68 65 6e .and.products.are.the.same,.then
1d2a0 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 28 70 72 6f 64 75 63 .there.are.more.products.(produc
1d2c0 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 66 61 76 6f 72 65 64 29 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 ts.are.favored),.and.the.equilib
1d2e0 72 69 75 6d 20 6c 69 65 73 20 60 60 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 27 27 20 6f 6e 20 74 68 rium.lies.``to.the.right''.on.th
1d300 65 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 65 71 75 61 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 53 69 6d 69 6c 61 72 6c 79 2c 20 e.chemical.equation..Similarly,.
1d320 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 69 73 20 if.the.reverse.reaction.rate.is.
1d340 68 69 67 68 65 72 20 61 74 20 61 20 35 30 2f 35 30 20 6d 69 78 2c 20 74 68 65 72 65 20 61 72 65 higher.at.a.50/50.mix,.there.are
1d360 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 2c 20 74 68 65 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d .more.reactants,.the.equilibrium
1d380 20 6c 69 65 73 20 60 60 74 6f 20 74 68 65 20 6c 65 66 74 2c 27 27 20 61 6e 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 .lies.``to.the.left,''.and.react
1d3a0 61 6e 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 66 61 76 6f 72 65 64 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 61 74 20 65 ants.are.favored..Note.that.at.e
1d3c0 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2c 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e quilibrium,.the.reverse.reaction
1d3e0 20 72 61 74 65 20 69 73 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 73 20 74 68 65 20 .rate.is.always.the.same.as.the.
1d400 66 6f 72 77 61 72 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 20 62 79 20 64 65 66 69 6e 69 74 forward.reaction.rate.by.definit
1d420 69 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 45 71 ion...\subsubsection{Chemical.Eq
1d440 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 7d 00 09 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 uilibrium}..Reactions.are.consta
1d460 6e 74 6c 79 20 68 61 70 70 65 6e 69 6e 67 20 69 66 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 ntly.happening.if.the.reactants.
1d480 61 72 65 20 61 76 61 69 6c 61 62 6c 65 20 61 6e 64 20 65 6e 6f 75 67 68 20 6b 69 6e 65 74 69 63 are.available.and.enough.kinetic
1d4a0 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 69 73 20 70 72 65 73 65 6e 74 2c 20 73 6f 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 .energy.is.present,.so.equilibri
1d4c0 75 6d 20 77 69 74 68 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6d 75 73 um.with.reversible.reactions.mus
1d4e0 74 20 62 65 20 64 79 6e 61 6d 69 63 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 2d 2d 2d 74 68 65 20 73 t.be.dynamic.equilibrium---the.s
1d500 79 73 74 65 6d 20 73 74 61 79 73 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 63 6f 6e 63 65 6e 74 72 ystem.stays.at.the.same.concentr
1d520 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 69 6f 73 20 6f 76 65 72 61 6c 6c 2c 20 62 75 74 20 61 6e 79 20 73 70 ation.ratios.overall,.but.any.sp
1d540 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 70 61 72 74 20 69 73 20 63 6f 6e 73 74 61 6e 74 6c 79 20 63 68 61 6e 67 69 ecific.part.is.constantly.changi
1d560 6e 67 2e 20 46 6f 72 77 61 72 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 73 20 61 6e 64 20 72 ng..Forward.reaction.rates.and.r
1d580 65 76 65 72 73 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 61 74 65 73 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 68 6f 77 everse.reaction.rates.change.how
1d5a0 20 6d 75 63 68 20 74 68 65 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 73 20 69 6e 20 6f 6e 65 .much.the.mixture.changes.in.one
1d5c0 20 77 61 79 20 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 6f 74 68 65 72 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 61 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 65 .way.or.the.other.(i.e..are.more
1d5e0 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6f 63 63 75 72 69 6e 67 20 24 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 5c .reactions.occuring.$reactants.\
1d600 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 24 20 6f 72 20 24 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e rightarrow.products$.or.$reactan
1d620 74 73 20 5c 6c 65 66 74 61 72 72 6f 77 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 24 29 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 ts.\leftarrow.products$)..\subsu
1d640 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 46 6f 72 77 61 72 64 20 61 6e 64 20 52 65 76 65 72 73 65 20 52 65 61 bsection{Forward.and.Reverse.Rea
1d660 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 52 61 74 65 73 7d 00 09 45 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 ction.Rates}..Equilibrium.is.the
1d680 20 73 74 61 74 65 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 61 20 73 79 73 74 65 6d 20 69 73 20 62 61 6c 61 6e 63 65 .state.where.a.system.is.balance
1d6a0 64 20 28 6c 69 6b 65 20 62 6f 69 6c 69 6e 67 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 6c 6f 73 65 d.(like.boiling.water.in.a.close
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1d6e0 65 20 6c 69 71 75 69 64 20 70 61 72 74 20 75 6e 74 69 6c 20 69 74 20 73 74 6f 70 73 20 62 6f 69 e.liquid.part.until.it.stops.boi
1d700 6c 69 6e 67 29 2e 20 41 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 73 20 ling)..A.reversible.reaction.is.
1d720 61 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 6e 65 69 74 68 65 72 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 72 a.reaction.where.neither.the.for
1d740 77 61 72 64 20 28 24 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 5c 72 69 67 68 74 61 72 72 6f 77 20 70 72 6f ward.($reactants.\rightarrow.pro
1d760 64 75 63 74 73 24 20 61 6e 64 20 24 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 5c 6c 65 66 74 61 72 72 6f 77 ducts$.and.$reactants.\leftarrow
1d780 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 24 20 63 61 6e 20 62 6f 74 68 20 6f 63 63 75 72 29 2e 20 4e 6f 74 65 .products$.can.both.occur)..Note
1d7a0 20 74 68 61 74 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 20 61 72 65 .that.reactants.and.products.are
1d7c0 20 61 6c 77 61 79 73 20 70 6c 61 63 65 64 20 69 6e 20 74 68 61 74 20 6f 72 64 65 72 20 72 65 67 .always.placed.in.that.order.reg
1d7e0 61 72 64 6c 65 73 73 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 64 69 72 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 74 68 65 20 ardless.of.the.direction.of.the.
1d800 61 72 72 6f 77 2e 20 54 68 65 20 66 61 76 6f 72 65 64 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 64 69 72 65 arrow..The.favored.reaction.dire
1d820 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 61 6e 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 65 6e 76 69 72 6f 6e 6d 65 6e ction.can.change.with.environmen
1d840 74 61 6c 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 6c 69 6b 65 20 70 72 65 73 73 75 72 65 20 61 6e 64 tal.conditions.like.pressure.and
1d860 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2c 20 73 6f 20 65 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 20 69 73 20 .temperature,.so.equilibrium.is.
1d880 70 6f 73 73 69 62 6c 65 20 77 69 74 68 20 72 65 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f possible.with.reversible.reactio
1d8a0 6e 73 20 28 6d 61 6e 69 66 65 73 74 69 6e 67 20 61 73 20 61 20 6d 69 78 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 ns.(manifesting.as.a.mixture.of.
1d8c0 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 20 61 6e 64 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 74 73 29 00 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 reactants.and.products).........
1d8e0 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 71 75 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 20 69 6e 20 52 65 \subsubsection{Equilibrium.in.Re
1d900 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 7d 00 20 20 20 20 5c 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 versible.Reactions}.....\subsect
1d920 69 6f 6e 7b 52 65 76 65 72 73 69 62 6c 65 20 52 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 45 71 75 ion{Reversible.Reactions.and.Equ
1d940 69 6c 69 62 72 69 75 6d 7d 00 09 45 6e 7a 79 6d 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 20 70 ilibrium}..Enzymes.are.complex.p
1d960 72 6f 74 65 69 6e 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 61 72 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 63 65 64 20 62 69 6f 6c 6f roteins.which.are.produced.biolo
1d980 67 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 20 61 6e 64 20 63 61 74 61 6c 79 7a 65 20 62 69 6f 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c gically.and.catalyze.biochemical
1d9a0 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 74 20 62 6f 64 79 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 20 .reactions.at.body.temperature..
1d9c0 4d 6f 73 74 20 61 72 65 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 74 6f 20 70 61 72 74 69 63 75 6c 61 72 20 Most.are.specific.to.particular.
1d9e0 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 2e 20 45 6e 7a 79 6d 65 reactions.and.substances..Enzyme
1da00 73 20 66 75 6e 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 79 20 69 6e 74 65 72 61 63 74 69 6e 67 20 77 69 74 68 20 61 s.function.by.interacting.with.a
1da20 20 73 75 62 73 74 72 61 74 65 20 28 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 73 29 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 .substrate.(reactants).at.the.ac
1da40 74 69 76 65 20 73 69 74 65 2c 20 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 61 20 73 6f 72 74 20 6f 66 20 6c 6f 63 tive.site,.forming.a.sort.of.loc
1da60 6b 20 61 6e 64 20 6b 65 79 20 73 74 72 75 63 74 75 72 65 20 63 61 6c 6c 65 64 20 74 68 65 20 65 k.and.key.structure.called.the.e
1da80 6e 7a 79 6d 65 2d 73 75 62 73 74 72 61 74 65 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 78 2e 20 54 68 65 6e 2c 20 74 nzyme-substrate.complex..Then,.t
1daa0 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 63 63 75 72 73 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 64 75 he.reaction.occurs.and.the.produ
1dac0 63 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 66 6f 72 6d 65 64 2e 20 45 6e 7a 79 6d 65 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 6f 6d 65 cts.are.formed..Enzymes.are.some
1dae0 74 69 6d 65 73 20 69 6e 68 69 62 69 74 65 64 20 62 79 20 62 6f 64 79 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 69 6f times.inhibited.by.body.conditio
1db00 6e 73 20 28 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 73 20 6f 72 20 61 63 ns.(different.temperatures.or.ac
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1db60 74 68 20 69 74 20 61 74 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 65 20 73 69 74 65 20 28 62 6c 6f 63 6b 69 th.it.at.the.active.site.(blocki
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1dba0 75 62 73 74 72 61 74 65 29 20 6f 72 20 61 74 20 61 6e 20 61 6c 6c 6f 73 74 65 72 69 63 20 73 69 ubstrate).or.at.an.allosteric.si
1dbc0 74 65 20 28 64 65 66 6f 72 6d 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 70 72 6f 74 65 69 6e 29 2e 20 54 68 65 20 te.(deforming.the.protein)..The.
1dbe0 65 6e 7a 79 6d 65 73 20 63 61 6e 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 66 65 65 64 62 61 63 6b 20 6c 6f 6f 70 73 20 enzymes.can.form.feedback.loops.
1dc00 77 69 74 68 20 74 68 65 20 62 6f 64 79 20 74 6f 20 72 65 67 75 6c 61 74 65 20 63 6f 6e 64 69 74 with.the.body.to.regulate.condit
1dc20 69 6f 6e 73 20 61 6e 64 20 6c 69 6d 69 74 20 74 68 65 69 72 20 64 65 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e ions.and.limit.their.deformation
1dc40 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 45 6e 7a 79 6d 65 73 7d 00 09 48 65 74 65 ...\subsubsection{Enzymes}..Hete
1dc60 72 6f 67 65 6e 6f 75 73 20 63 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 61 6e 79 20 63 61 74 61 6c rogenous.catalysts.are.any.catal
1dc80 79 73 74 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 73 20 69 6e 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 73 74 61 74 yst.which.is.in.a.different.stat
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1dcc0 2d 6d 61 6b 69 6e 67 20 69 74 20 65 61 73 69 65 72 20 74 6f 20 72 65 6d 6f 76 65 20 77 68 65 6e -making.it.easier.to.remove.when
1dce0 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 63 6f 6d 70 6c 65 74 65 73 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 69 .the.reaction.completes..These.i
1dd00 6e 63 6c 75 64 65 20 70 6c 61 74 69 6e 75 6d 20 69 6e 20 61 20 63 61 74 61 6c 79 74 69 63 20 63 nclude.platinum.in.a.catalytic.c
1dd20 6f 6e 76 65 72 74 65 72 20 6f 72 20 69 72 6f 6e 20 69 6e 20 61 6d 6d 6f 6e 69 61 20 70 72 6f 64 onverter.or.iron.in.ammonia.prod
1dd40 75 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 48 65 74 65 72 6f 67 65 uction...\subsubsection{Heteroge
1dd60 6e 6f 75 73 20 43 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 7d 00 09 43 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 20 64 65 63 72 65 nous.Catalysts}..Catalysts.decre
1dd80 61 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 2f 69 6e 63 72 65 61 ase.the.activation.energy/increa
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1ddc0 74 61 6e 74 73 20 69 6e 20 74 68 65 20 72 69 67 68 74 20 6f 72 69 65 6e 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 74 tants.in.the.right.orientation.t
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1de00 72 20 6f 66 20 65 66 66 65 63 74 69 76 65 20 63 6f 6c 6c 69 73 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 65 79 20 r.of.effective.collisions..They.
1de20 63 61 6e 20 61 6c 73 6f 20 66 6f 72 6d 20 74 65 6d 70 6f 72 61 72 79 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6d 65 64 can.also.form.temporary.intermed
1de40 69 61 74 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 73 20 66 6f 72 20 61 20 64 69 66 66 65 72 65 6e 74 20 iate.substances.for.a.different.
1de60 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 70 61 74 68 77 61 79 2c 20 61 6e 64 20 74 68 65 79 20 73 6f 6d 65 74 reaction.pathway,.and.they.somet
1de80 69 6d 65 73 20 77 65 61 6b 65 6e 20 6f 72 20 62 72 65 61 6b 20 72 65 61 63 74 61 6e 74 20 62 6f imes.weaken.or.break.reactant.bo
1dea0 6e 64 73 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 48 6f 77 20 43 61 74 61 6c 79 73 nds...\subsubsection{How.Catalys
1dec0 74 73 20 57 6f 72 6b 7d 00 09 43 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 20 61 72 65 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 ts.Work}..Catalysts.are.substanc
1dee0 65 73 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 69 6e 63 72 65 61 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 72 61 74 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 es.which.increase.the.rate.of.a.
1df00 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 62 75 74 20 61 72 65 6e 27 74 20 63 6f 6e 73 75 6d 65 64 20 62 79 20 reaction.but.aren't.consumed.by.
1df20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 62 79 20 74 68 65 20 63 72 65 the.reaction..This.is.by.the.cre
1df40 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6f 66 20 61 6e 20 61 6c 74 65 72 6e 61 74 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 20 70 ation.of.an.alternate.reaction.p
1df60 61 74 68 77 61 79 20 77 69 74 68 20 6c 6f 77 65 72 20 61 63 74 69 76 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 65 6e 65 athway.with.lower.activation.ene
1df80 72 67 79 2e 20 41 73 20 6e 6f 74 65 64 20 69 6e 20 61 20 70 72 65 76 69 6f 75 73 20 6c 65 73 73 rgy..As.noted.in.a.previous.less
1dfa0 6f 6e 20 61 62 6f 75 74 20 6e 6f 74 61 74 69 6f 6e 2c 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 65 71 75 61 on.about.notation,.chemical.equa
1dfc0 74 69 6f 6e 73 20 77 69 74 68 20 63 61 74 61 6c 79 73 74 73 20 68 61 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 63 61 tions.with.catalysts.have.the.ca
1dfe0 74 61 6c 79 73 74 20 77 72 69 74 74 65 6e 20 61 62 6f 76 65 20 74 68 65 20 61 72 72 6f 77 2e 00 talyst.written.above.the.arrow..
1e000 61 64 00 00 93 09 00 00 d7 09 00 00 00 10 00 00 0a 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 08 0d 00 00 e0 0c 00 00 ad..............................
1e020 27 0c 00 00 05 0c 00 00 00 0b 00 00 d2 0a 00 00 e8 09 00 00 e7 09 00 00 d8 09 00 00 d7 09 00 00 '...............................
1e040 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e060 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e080 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e0a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e0c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e0e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e100 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e120 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e140 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e160 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e180 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e1a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e1c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e1e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e200 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e220 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e240 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e260 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e280 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e2a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e2c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e2e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e300 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e320 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e340 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e360 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e380 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e3a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e3c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e3e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e400 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e420 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e440 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e460 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e480 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e4a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e4c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e4e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e500 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e520 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e540 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e560 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e580 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e5a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e5c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e5e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e600 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e620 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e640 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e660 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e680 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e6a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e6c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e6e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e700 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e720 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e740 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e760 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e780 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e7a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e7c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
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1e880 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e8a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e8c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e8e0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e900 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
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1e940 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e960 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e980 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e9a0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 ................................
1e9c0 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 5c 65 6e 64 7b 64 6f 63 ........................\end{doc
1e9e0 75 6d 65 6e 74 7d 00 00 09 4e 75 74 72 69 74 69 6f 6e 20 69 6e 66 6f 72 6d 61 74 69 6f 6e 20 6c ument}...Nutrition.information.l
1ea00 61 62 65 6c 73 20 67 69 76 65 20 63 61 6c 6f 72 69 65 20 63 6f 75 6e 74 73 20 28 6e 6f 74 65 20 abels.give.calorie.counts.(note.
1ea20 74 68 61 74 20 61 20 66 6f 6f 64 20 43 61 6c 6f 72 69 65 20 69 73 20 61 20 6b 69 6c 6f 63 61 6c that.a.food.Calorie.is.a.kilocal
1ea40 6f 72 69 65 20 6f 72 20 24 34 2e 31 38 34 6b 4a 24 29 2e 20 54 68 65 73 65 20 61 72 65 20 64 65 orie.or.$4.184kJ$)..These.are.de
1ea60 74 65 72 6d 69 6e 65 64 20 77 69 74 68 20 62 6f 6d 62 20 63 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 65 72 73 20 termined.with.bomb.calorimeters.
1ea80 62 79 20 62 75 72 6e 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 66 6f 6f 64 20 61 6e 64 20 64 65 74 65 72 6d 69 6e by.burning.the.food.and.determin
1eaa0 69 6e 67 20 68 65 61 74 20 72 65 6c 65 61 73 65 64 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 20 74 68 65 20 63 6f 6d ing.heat.released.during.the.com
1eac0 62 75 73 74 69 6f 6e 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f bustion.reaction...\subsubsectio
1eae0 6e 7b 54 68 65 20 43 61 6c 6f 72 69 65 20 43 6f 6e 74 65 6e 74 20 6f 66 20 46 6f 6f 64 73 7d 00 n{The.Calorie.Content.of.Foods}.
1eb00 09 41 20 62 6f 6d 62 20 63 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 65 72 20 69 73 20 61 20 73 70 65 63 69 66 69 .A.bomb.calorimeter.is.a.specifi
1eb20 63 20 74 79 70 65 20 6f 66 20 63 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 65 72 20 77 68 69 63 68 20 64 6f 65 73 c.type.of.calorimeter.which.does
1eb40 6e 27 74 20 75 73 65 20 61 20 62 61 74 68 20 6f 66 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 28 73 6f 6c 75 74 69 6f n't.use.a.bath.of.water.(solutio
1eb60 6e 29 20 66 6f 72 20 74 68 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 2e 20 49 6e 73 74 65 61 64 2c 20 69 74 n).for.the.reaction..Instead,.it
1eb80 20 68 61 73 20 61 20 73 65 70 61 72 61 74 65 64 20 76 65 73 73 65 6c 20 69 6e 73 69 64 65 20 6f .has.a.separated.vessel.inside.o
1eba0 66 20 61 20 62 61 74 68 20 6f 66 20 77 61 74 65 72 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 20 6d 6f 72 f.a.bath.of.water.to.measure.mor
1ebc0 65 20 72 65 61 63 74 69 6f 6e 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 61 72 65 20 6f 66 74 65 6e 20 75 73 65 64 e.reactions..This.are.often.used
1ebe0 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 20 63 6f 6d 62 75 73 74 69 6f 6e 20 68 65 61 74 20 72 65 6c 65 .to.measure.combustion.heat.rele
1ec00 61 73 65 2e 00 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 42 6f 6d 62 20 43 61 6c 6f 72 69 ase...\subsubsection{Bomb.Calori
1ec20 6d 65 74 72 79 7d 00 09 43 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 72 79 20 69 73 20 60 60 74 68 65 20 75 73 65 metry}..Calorimetry.is.``the.use
1ec40 20 6f 66 20 61 20 63 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 65 72 20 74 6f 20 6d 65 61 73 75 72 65 20 65 6e 65 .of.a.calorimeter.to.measure.ene
1ec60 72 67 79 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 6f 66 66 20 6f 72 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 65 64 20 64 75 72 69 6e 67 rgy.given.off.or.absorbed.during
1ec80 20 61 20 70 68 79 73 69 63 61 6c 20 6f 72 20 63 68 65 6d 69 63 61 6c 20 70 72 6f 63 65 73 73 2c .a.physical.or.chemical.process,
1eca0 27 27 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 61 20 63 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 65 72 20 69 73 20 61 20 64 65 76 69 ''.where.a.calorimeter.is.a.devi
1ecc0 63 65 20 64 65 73 69 67 6e 65 64 20 74 6f 20 64 6f 20 65 78 61 63 74 6c 79 20 74 68 61 74 2e 00 ce.designed.to.do.exactly.that..
1ece0 09 5c 73 75 62 73 75 62 73 65 63 74 69 6f 6e 7b 43 61 6c 6f 72 69 6d 65 74 72 79 20 44 65 66 69 .\subsubsection{Calorimetry.Defi
1ed00 6e 69 74 69 6f 6e 7d 00 09 48 65 61 74 20 63 61 70 61 63 69 74 79 20 69 73 20 60 60 74 68 65 20 nition}..Heat.capacity.is.``the.
1ed20 71 75 61 6e 74 69 74 79 20 6f 66 20 68 65 61 74 20 6e 65 65 64 65 64 20 74 6f 20 72 61 69 73 65 quantity.of.heat.needed.to.raise
1ed40 20 74 68 65 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 67 69 76 65 6e 20 73 61 6d 70 .the.temperature.of.a.given.samp
1ed60 6c 65 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 75 62 73 74 61 6e 63 65 20 62 79 20 6f 6e 65 20 64 65 67 72 65 65 20 le.of.a.substance.by.one.degree.
1ed80 43 65 6c 73 69 75 73 2f 4b 65 6c 76 69 6e 2e 27 27 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 64 65 73 63 72 69 Celsius/Kelvin.''.This.is.descri
1eda0 62 65 64 20 69 6e 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 65 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 7b 74 bed.in.units.of.$\frac{energy}{t
1edc0 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 7d 24 20 28 65 78 3a 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 4a 7d 7b 5e 7b 5c 63 emperature}$.(ex:.$\frac{J}{^{\c
1ede0 69 72 63 7d 43 7d 24 20 6f 72 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 63 61 6c 7d 7b 4b 7d 24 29 2e 20 4e 6f 74 irc}C}$.or.$\frac{cal}{K}$)..Not
1ee00 65 20 74 68 61 74 20 74 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 61 6e 20 65 78 74 65 6e 73 69 76 65 20 70 72 6f 70 e.that.this.is.an.extensive.prop
1ee20 65 72 74 79 20 62 65 63 61 75 73 65 20 74 68 65 20 6d 61 73 73 20 6f 66 20 61 20 73 61 6d 70 6c erty.because.the.mass.of.a.sampl
1ee40 65 20 69 73 20 72 65 6c 65 76 61 6e 74 20 28 69 2e 65 2e 20 61 20 6c 61 72 67 65 72 20 73 61 6d e.is.relevant.(i.e..a.larger.sam
1ee60 70 6c 65 20 74 61 6b 65 73 20 6d 6f 72 65 20 65 6e 65 72 67 79 20 74 6f 20 68 65 61 74 20 62 79 ple.takes.more.energy.to.heat.by
1ee80 20 74 68 65 20 73 61 6d 65 20 61 6d 6f 75 6e 74 29 2e 20 53 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 68 65 61 74 .the.same.amount)..Specific.heat
1eea0 20 63 61 70 61 63 69 74 79 20 28 24 43 5f 70 24 29 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 68 65 61 74 20 63 61 .capacity.($C_p$).is.the.heat.ca
1eec0 70 61 63 74 69 79 20 70 65 72 20 67 72 61 6d 2c 20 73 6f 20 74 68 69 73 20 68 61 73 20 74 68 65 pactiy.per.gram,.so.this.has.the
1eee0 20 75 6e 69 74 73 20 6f 66 20 24 5c 66 72 61 63 7b 65 6e 65 72 67 79 7d 7b 6d 61 73 73 2a 4b 7d .units.of.$\frac{energy}{mass*K}
1ef00 24 2e 20 53 70 65 63 69 66 69 63 20 68 65 61 74 20 63 61 6e 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 77 69 74 68 $..Specific.heat.can.change.with
1ef20 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2c 20 65 73 70 65 63 69 61 6c 6c 79 20 69 6e 20 67 61 73 65 .temperature,.especially.in.gase
1ef40 73 2e 20 54 68 69 73 20 69 73 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 20 74 6f 20 69 6e 74 65 72 6d 6f 6c 65 63 s..This.is.related.to.intermolec
1ef60 75 6c 61 72 20 66 6f 72 63 65 73 2e 20 48 65 61 74 20 61 62 73 6f 72 62 65 64 20 6f 72 20 72 65 ular.forces..Heat.absorbed.or.re
1ef80 6c 65 61 73 65 64 20 28 24 71 24 29 20 63 61 6e 20 62 65 20 72 65 6c 61 74 65 64 2c 20 6d 61 74 leased.($q$).can.be.related,.mat
1efa0 68 65 6d 61 74 69 63 61 6c 6c 79 2c 20 61 73 20 24 71 3d 6d 43 5f 70 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 54 24 hematically,.as.$q=mC_p\Delta.T$
1efc0 20 77 68 65 72 65 20 24 6d 24 20 69 73 20 6d 61 73 73 20 61 6e 64 20 24 5c 44 65 6c 74 61 20 54 .where.$m$.is.mass.and.$\Delta.T
1efe0 24 20 69 73 20 74 68 65 20 63 68 61 6e 67 65 20 69 6e 20 74 65 6d 70 65 72 61 74 75 72 65 2e 00 $.is.the.change.in.temperature..
generated by cgit (git 2.34.1) at 2024-05-13 22:05:35 +0000